South American Civilizations

SOUTH AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS

3500 BCE – PRESENT

This area includes the high mountains and plateaus of Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador.

This region consists of arid coastal deserts and river valleys in modern Peru.

This includes the mountainous and desert regions of Chile and Western Argentina.

Dominated by the great river, this area includes Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela.

This region consists of the vast, temperate grasslands of Argentina and Uruguay.

Ancient South American Civilizations created Nazca Lines. For example, these massive geoglyphs depict animals and geometric shapes in the desert.

The Inca kept all administrative records using the quipu, a system of knotted strings. Consequently, its complex code remains largely undeciphered by modern scholars.

The city of Caral-Supe (c. 3500 BCE) in Peru is the oldest known urban center in the Americas. Furthermore, it developed without the use of pottery.

Overview

The ancient history of this continent is dominated by the monumental achievements of the Andean cultures. Furthermore, the development of South American Civilizations was largely isolated from the Old World. Their societies independently developed complex agriculture and massive architectural projects. Conversely, they lacked the wheeled vehicle, writing, and advanced metallurgy common elsewhere. Their history is a unique study of adaptation. Consequently, they transformed extreme coastal deserts and high mountains into productive centers of empire.

The complex South America Civilizations shared several common, highly unique characteristics due to their isolation and environment.

Vertical Ecology

All Andean cultures utilized a system of vertical ecology to access diverse resources. Therefore, they controlled different climate zones from the coast to the highlands. This was essential for nutritional diversity.

Technology and Adaptation

These civilizations achieved monumental architecture without the wheel or iron metallurgy. Consequently, they utilized innovative stone masonry and bronze alloys. This demonstrates incredible human adaptation to the environment.

Indigenous Resilience

The vast cultural and linguistic diversity of the continent survived initial conquest. Furthermore, the descendants of these advanced societies maintain strong cultural traditions today.

I. Andean Region: The Birthplace of Empire

This high-altitude region saw the earliest and most enduring state structures. Therefore, its geography of high plateaus required unique agricultural solutions. The domestication of the potato and the llama was crucial.

Caral-Supe

The Caral-Supe culture (c. 3500 BCE) is the oldest complex society known in the Americas. They built enormous earthen platform mounds and sophisticated irrigation systems. Furthermore, their urbanism developed without the use of pottery or warfare.

Chavín Culture

The Chavín culture (c. 900–200 BCE) was a major early religious and artistic phenomenon. Consequently, their influence spread widely through prestige goods and religious iconography. Their main center was the temple complex of Chavín de Huántar.

Tiwanaku and Wari

The powerful Tiwanaku (c. 300–1000 CE) controlled the southern Lake Titicaca region. Conversely, the Wari Empire (c. 600–1000 CE) controlled the northern Andes. These two early empires built extensive road systems and terraced farming.

II. Central Andes Coast: Desert Ingenuity

This narrow, hyper-arid coastline is crossed by short, fertile river valleys. Therefore, these ancient South American Civilizations survived by creating highly sophisticated irrigation networks and canals. The environmental challenges fostered radical ingenuity.

Moche Culture

The Moche (c. 100–800 CE) built enormous adobe pyramids, like the Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna. Furthermore, they were masters of elaborate, naturalistic pottery and fine gold metallurgy. Their religious practices often included ritual sacrifice.

Nazca Culture

The Nazca (c. 100–800 CE) are famous for creating the massive desert geoglyphs in Southern Peru. These figures depict animals and lines visible only from the air. Their engineering focused on intricate underground aqueducts called puquios.

Chimú Kingdom

The Chimú (c. 900–1470 CE) built the massive adobe city of Chan Chan, which was the largest city in ancient South America. Most importantly, they controlled a sophisticated coastal irrigation system until their defeat by the Inca.

III. Southern Andes: Isolation and Adaptation

This region comprises the mountainous southern third of the continent. The challenging environment and harsh climate limited large, centralized empires until the very late period.

Mapuche Peoples

The Mapuche (or Araucanians) inhabited the region of modern Chile. They developed strong, decentralized military traditions. Furthermore, they successfully resisted both Inca and Spanish conquest for centuries.

Diaguita Culture

The Diaguita inhabited the arid valleys of northwestern Argentina and Northern Chile. They were skilled metallurgists and potters. Consequently, their settlements included highly defensible stone fortifications.

Inca Expansion

The Inca eventually incorporated parts of this region into their massive empire. This required the construction of long supply roads and fortresses. Therefore, the Inca presence here marked the southern extent of South American Civilizations.

IV. Amazonian Basin: The Rainforest Cultures

The vast Amazonian Basin was traditionally thought to be sparsely populated. Recent discoveries, however, show large, complex, and sophisticated chiefdoms existed.

Marajoara Culture

The Marajoara (c. 400–1350 CE) inhabited Marajó Island at the mouth of the Amazon River. They are famous for their intricate, elaborate painted polychrome pottery. Consequently, they constructed enormous artificial earth mounds for settlement.

Geoglyphs of Acre

Recent deforestation has revealed extensive geoglyphs carved into the rainforest floor in Acre, Brazil. These structures suggest organized, complex societies. Furthermore, they imply large-scale planning within the forested interior.

Terra Preta

The widespread creation of highly fertile, human-made soil called Terra Preta (black earth) suggests massive, sustained populations. Therefore, the Amazon supported far larger societies than previously believed.

VI. Southern Cone: Pampas and Patagonian Cultures

This region consists of the vast, temperate grasslands of the Pampas and the harsh Patagonian environment. Consequently, cultures here maintained strong nomadic and semi-nomadic hunting traditions. They remained politically separate from the massive Andean states.

Charrúa and Guaraní

Nomadic groups like the Charrúa and early Guaraní utilized mobile hunting-gathering economies. Conversely, the Guaraní also developed sophisticated shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn) agriculture. Their societies focused on small, independent communities.

Diaguita Culture (Revisit)

Diaguita Culture (Revisit): The Diaguita inhabited the arid valleys of northwestern Argentina. They were skilled metallurgists and potters. Consequently, their settlements included highly defensible stone fortifications on hilltops.

Trade and Cultural Exchange

While independent, these cultures still engaged in long-distance trade. They exchanged unique goods, like feathers and dyes, for highland textiles and metals. Therefore, they were integrated into the broader network of South America Civilizations.