Great Pyramid Of Cholula

The Great Pyramid of Cholula, a sprawling testament to Mesoamerican ingenuity, rises from the heart of Mexico’s Puebla Valley, a monument steeped in history and shrouded in mystery. More than a mere structure, Cholula is a chronicle etched in earth and stone, spanning millennia and cultures. From its Preclassic origins to the Spanish conquest, this layered pyramid embodies the enduring spirit of a civilization.

Its monumental scale, exceeding even the famed pyramids of Giza in volume, conceals a complex network of tunnels and intricate architectural details, reflecting advanced engineering and astronomical knowledge. This webpage delves into Cholula’s multifaceted story, exploring its geographic context, architectural marvels, the wisdom of its keepers, and the challenges of its preservation. Discover the cultural impact of this sacred mountain, where ancient rituals and artistic expressions converge, and witness how modern scholarship and ancestral traditions unite to unveil the secrets of this extraordinary landmark.

ART

Timeless Artwork

The “talud-tablero” architectural style is the most influential art form. Its geometric precision and symbolic connection to Teotihuacan shaped Mesoamerican architecture for centuries, influencing not just Cholula, but distant sites.

HIDDEN TRUTH

Sacred Wisdom

While often associated solely with Quetzalcoatl, archaeological evidence suggests Cholula was a multi-ethnic city, with various groups contributing to the pyramid’s construction. This diversity is hidden within the layers of the structure.

FACT

Grand Knowledge

The church atop the pyramid, Santuario de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, was built using stones taken from the pre-existing pyramid. And to add to the grandeur, the site began with 1 pyramid and throughout 6 phases, (pyramid built upon pyramid) until it became what we see today!

Geography

City/Area

City/Area:	Cholula, a city with a long and rich history, surrounds the pyramid. It is known for its traditional architecture, churches, and cultural festivals.
Region/Country	Central Mexico, North America
Proximity to Cities	The urban expansion of Cholula and Puebla has placed increasing pressure on the archaeological site, requiring careful management of development.
Other landmarks In the Area	Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, San Gabriel Convent, Plaza de la Concordia, Smaller Pyramids, Santa María Tonantzintla Church, San Francisco Acatepec, Puebla City, Teotihuacan, Cantona, Yohualichan, and Atlixco are landmarks and archeological sites near Cholula.
Surrounding Area	The surrounding area includes a mix of urban development, agricultural fields, and protected archaeological zones.
Boundaries	Because it is within the modern city, and not a national park, the boundaries are that of the archeological zone as defined by INAH.
Area Significience	The surrounding area contains evidence of continuous occupation from the pre-Classic period to the present day, reflecting the enduring importance of Cholula.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula is situated in Mexico’s Puebla Valley. The highland plateau defined by volcanic mountains like Popocatépetl. Its temperate climate and fertile volcanic soil supported early agriculture, enabling the region’s development. Local resources like clay and obsidian were crucial for construction and tools. The location facilitated trade and cultural exchange with other Mesoamerican centers. Seasonal weather patterns influenced agricultural and ceremonial cycles. The natural elevation provided a strategic advantage. Urban development now challenges the site’s preservation. The region’s geography directly shaped Cholula’s growth and importance.

Geographical Region

Region/Country

Dominant physical features:	The Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, with its imposing volcanoes, including Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, dominates the region.
Climate and weather patterns:	The region experiences a temperate highland climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry season (November to April) is characterized by sunny days and cool nights, while the wet season (May to October) brings frequent rainfall.
Ecosystems and natural resources:	The region’s ecosystems include pine-oak forests on the surrounding slopes and grasslands in the valley.
Geological formations and topography	The region is characterized by volcanic formations, including lava flows and ash deposits. The topography is a mix of flat plains, rolling hills, and steep slopes.
Proximity to other geographical features or regions:	It is situated in proximity to other significant archaeological sites, such as Teotihuacan, indicating a network of cultural interaction.
The impact of the geographical context on the landmark’s development or use:	The fertile soil and abundant water resources supported a large population and agricultural surplus, allowing for the construction and maintenance of the pyramid.

Historical Period/Era

Time Period Facts

Time Period/ Era	400 BCE – 1519 CE
Historical Periods	Preclassic, Classic, and Postclassic periods.
Dynasty or Empire	Olmec-Xicalanca and Toltec-Chichimec influence.
Construction Dates	Archaeological and radiocarbon dating place the major construction phases between 200 AD and 700 AD, coinciding with the rise and influence of Teotihuacan.
Construction Sequence	The pyramid was built in at least six major phases, with each phase involving the addition of new layers and platforms, beginning with a small pyramid.
Phases	Evidence suggests that the pyramid was initially a smaller structure, which was then expanded and modified by different groups, including the Olmec-Xicalanca and later the Cholulteca.
Historical Events in Period	Rise and fall of Teotihuacan, Spanish conquest.
Relationship Between Landmarks age and Historical Context	The multiple construction phases show how the pyramid was influenced by major shifts in Mesoamerican power dynamics.
Figures Related to	Indigenous people in mexico, Quetzalcoatl, and Hernán Cortés.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula spans multiple historical eras, beginning with its pre-Hispanic origins, peaking during the Classic period, and continuing through the Postclassic. The arrival of the Spanish marked a dramatic shift, overlaying indigenous structures with colonial architecture. This layered history reflects Cholula’s enduring significance as a cultural and religious center.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula (Tlachihualtepetl), the world's largest pyramid by volume, located in Cholula, Puebla, Mexico. — The Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico, the largest pyramid by volume, also known as Tlachihualtepetl.

Cultural Impact

People & Customs Facts

Estimated Population (Peak):	Varied estimates, possibly exceeding 100,000.
Average Life Span:	30-40 years (estimated, influenced by factors like infant mortality and disease).
Average Height:	5’0″ – 5’5″ (estimated, with variations based on social class and nutrition).
Primary Language:	Nahuatl, with potential for regional dialects.
Dominant Culture:	Nahua, with significant Olmec and other Mesoamerican cultural influences.
Family:	Lineage importance; elite polygyny; kinship networks; family roles; community responsibilities.
Customs:	Ritual ball games; New Fire ceremonies; processions; market days; pilgrimages.
Dress:	Elaborate feathered regalia for priests; simple clothing for commoners; warrior regalia.
Migration:	Trade and pilgrimage destination, diverse populations.

Legacy Facts

Art:	Multi-tiered pyramid; deity murals and sculptures; polychrome pottery; jade work.
Literature:	Myths of Quetzalcoatl; lost codices; oral histories; ritualistic chants.
Mythology:	Quetzalcoatl: serpent god, wisdom; Tezcatlipoca conflicts; creation narratives.
Wisdom:	Astronomy; calendars; omens; dream interpretations; philosophical concepts; cosmological understanding.
Music:	Ritual dances and music; drums, flutes; ceremonial songs; rhythmic patterns.
Sports:	Mesoamerican ball game; ritualistic games; community recreation; symbolic contests.
Technology:	Pyramid construction; advanced crafts; irrigation systems; tool production; calendrical calculations.
Food:	Maize, mole, roasted animals, tamales, atole, chili peppers, agricultural produce.
Agricultural Base:	Maize, beans, squash, and chili peppers were the primary crops.
Medicine:	Herbal remedies; ritual healing; surgical procedures; shamans; birth practices.

Society, Beliefs, and Governance Facts

Religion:	Quetzalcoatl worship; human sacrifice; cyclical rituals; ancestor veneration.
Hierarchy:	Priests and nobles ruled; artisans and laborers supported; rigid class divisions.
Governance:	Theocratic, with priests holding significant political and religious power.
Law:	Priests enforced religious laws; ritual trials; social control; political alliances.
Military Focus:	Nahuatl, with potential for regional dialects.
Education Focus:	Priestly training in calendrical systems and rituals; artisan apprenticeships for specialized crafts.
Market Systems:	Regional trade networks and local markets facilitated the exchange of goods.
Primary Trade Items:	Obsidian tools and blades, polychrome pottery, textiles, agricultural produce.

Influence on Culture, Politics & Society

Cultural Impact Facts

Role in Society:	The pyramid’s orientation, potentially tied to astronomical events like solstices, reinforced the connection between celestial cycles and agricultural practices, shaping the Cholultecan calendar and its associated rituals.
Influence on Art & Architecture:	The “talud-tablero” architectural style, a hallmark of Cholula, influenced the design of other Mesoamerican structures.
Influence on Society, Politics & Economy:	Pilgrimage to the pyramid fostered social interaction and cultural exchange. Control of the pyramid conferred political and religious authority to the ruling elite.
Role in Historical Narratives:	Central to Cholulteca identity, mentioned in Spanish chronicles.
Symbol of Culture:	The pyramid remains a symbol of Cholula’s ancient heritage and cultural identity.
Influence on Trade, Travel, or Communication:	Cholula’s strategic location and religious importance made it a major center for trade and pilgrimage in Mesoamerica.
Propaganda:	The Spanish built a church atop it, symbolizing colonial dominance.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula’s cultural impact resonates deeply across Mesoamerican history and into the present day. As a major religious and political center, it shaped the region’s cultural landscape, influencing architectural styles and artistic expressions. Today, it stands as a powerful symbol of indigenous heritage and a focal point for cultural tourism, fostering understanding and appreciation for Mexico’s rich pre-Hispanic past.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula has a complex network of internal tunnels, roughly 8 kilometers in total length, that were deliberately sealed by its ancient builders. These tunnels weren’t discovered until the early 20th century, and their purpose is still debated.

Interesting Fact

The Great Pyramid of Cholula: Discovery & Historical Context

The Great Pyramid of Cholula (Tlachihualtepetl), the largest pyramid by volume, located in Cholula, Puebla, Mexico. — The Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico, the world’s largest pyramid by volume, also known as Tlachihualtepetl.

Discovery Facts

Excavation Leaders:	–Ponciano Salazar Ortegón (early 20th century). –Eduardo Matos Moctezuma (late 20th/early 21st century, particularly tunnel explorations). –Archeologists from the Universidad de las Américas Puebla.
Funded By:	-INAH (National Institute of Anthropology and History). -Various academic and research institutions.
Archaeologists:	-Many archeologists associated with the INAH have worked on the site. -Archeologists from the Universidad de las Américas Puebla.
The circumstances of the discovery:	-The pyramid was never fully “lost,” as it was always visible as a hill topped by a church. -Modern archaeological investigations revealed its true scale and complexity.
The methods used in the research or excavation:	Stratigraphic excavation, Radiocarbon dating, Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and other geophysical surveys. 3d Laser scanning of the tunnel system.
The impact of their findings on our understanding of the landmark:	Revealed the pyramid’s complex construction history. Provided insights into ritual practices and cultural influences. Mapped the internal tunnel system.
Artifacts and Discoveries:	“Altar of the Skulls” within the tunnels. Ceramic vessels and figurines. Burial offerings. Remnants of murals.
Any controversies or debates surrounding the discovery:	Debates about the precise chronology of construction. Interpretations of ritual practices. The degree of restoration that is appropriate.

Ignacio Marquina spearheaded the most significant excavations at the Great Pyramid of Cholula in the 1930s, funded by the Mexican government through INAH. His work, building upon earlier documentation by Adolph Bandelier, involved tunneling into the pyramid, revealing its complex, layered construction. This exposed multiple building phases and various cultural influences, significantly enhancing our understanding of the site’s chronology and significance. Modern researchers like Geoffrey G. McCafferty, Patricia, and Michael Plunket continue to build upon these findings, analyzing artifacts, murals, and stratigraphic data to further illuminate the pyramid’s history.

Wisdom Keepers

Wisdom Keepers Facts

Elders	Local Cholulteca elders: possess oral traditions about the pyramid’s history.
Archaeologists	Geoffrey G. McCafferty, Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, Leonardo López Luján, and Patricia and Michael Plunket.
Publications	Publications by archeologists from the Universidad de las Américas Puebla on the archeology of the region.
Online Resources	INAH’s official website (inah.gob.mx). University websites with research publications.
Mode of Knowledge	Local elders: oral tradition, cultural transmission. Archaeologists: academic training, fieldwork, scientific analysis.

Cholulteca elders, keepers of oral traditions, share the pyramid’s history, while archaeologists like McCafferty and Matos Moctezuma contribute scientific understanding through fieldwork and publications. Research from Universidad de las Américas Puebla, INAH’s website, and university resources further enriches our knowledge, combining cultural transmission with academic analysis.

A structure in El Patio de los Altares, part of the Great Pyramid of Cholula complex in Mexico, the largest pyramid by volume.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula: Architectural and Engineering Features

Architectural Facts

Monumental Structure:	The Great Pyramid of Cholula is primarily classified as a monumental stepped pyramid, serving as a religious and ceremonial center.
Infrastructure	Integrated drainage systems, internal tunnel system for potential ritual access or structural purposes. Large plazas and courtyards. Terraced platforms..
# of Structures (estimate)	While the pyramid itself is the dominant structure, the archaeological zone encompasses numerous smaller platforms, courtyards, and residential areas. Estimates place the number of ancillary structures in the hundreds, though many are now buried or eroded.
Residential or Commercial:	Surrounding area contained residential zones, and Cholula was a major commercial center.
Natural Formation:	Built on Hill
Landscape Architecture:	Plazas and courtyards integrated into the overall design.
Religious Structure:	Santuario de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, a Spanish colonial church, atop the pyramid.
Architectural Style:	Mesoamerican, specifically the “talud-tablero” style, influenced by Teotihuacan.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula stands as a monumental stepped pyramid, a testament to the engineering prowess of Mesoamerican civilizations. Constructed primarily of adobe brick, it showcases a layered design built over centuries. Its “talud-tablero” architectural style, characterized by sloping panels and horizontal platforms, is a defining feature. The pyramid’s internal tunnels, intricate drainage systems, and massive scale reveal sophisticated planning and execution, reflecting the complex social organization and technical capabilities of its builders.

Design & Construction

Design and Construction Facts

Overall design concept and layout	A massive, stepped pyramid built in multiple phases, with a broad base and a series of superimposed platforms. The design was intended to replicate a sacred mountain.
Specific architectural elements	Stepped platforms, talud-tablero architectural style (influenced by Teotihuacan), and extensive tunnel systems.
Engineering innovations::	The ability to maintain the structural integrity of the massive adobe structure across centuries is a testament to the engineering.
Construction process:	Archeological record shows that the pyramid was built in at least 6 distinct phases.
Interior and exterior	The exterior is now largely covered in vegetation. The interior contains extensive tunnel systems. The church atop the pyramid is a colonial addition.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula, a testament to Mesoamerican ingenuity, expanded a natural hill into a layered, stepped structure. Its design, devoid of traditional columns or arches, focused on robust platforms. Internal tunnels expose its phased construction, revealing how each layer built upon the last. Engineering innovations prioritized supporting the pyramid’s immense weight. Adobe brick and fill materials formed the core, while the exterior, once vibrant with painted stucco, and the interior, adorned with murals, underscored its artistic and symbolic importance. This meticulous process, building over existing structures, showcases a sophisticated understanding of construction and cultural expression.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico, one of the largest pyramids by volume, with significant historical and cultural importance.

Dimensions and Materials

Dimension & Materials Facts

Size of Site:	Approximately 450 by 450 meters at the base.
Height:	Approximately 55 meters.
Depth:	Internal tunnels reach varying depths.
Volume & Weight	Estimated at over 4 million cubic meters
Types of Materials:	Adobe brick and volcanic stone
Mohs Hardness Scale:	Volcanic stone, Generally 5-7
Quality and Properties:	Volcanic stone provided durability and load-bearing capacity. Adobe brick was used for fill and structural support.
How Material Influenced Design	The durability of volcanic stone allowed for the construction of a massive, long-lasting structure.
Sourcing and Transport of the Materials:	Materials were primarily sourced locally, contributing to the pyramid’s integration with the surrounding environment. Transport was likely manual.
Distance Material Transported:	Primarily local, with some materials potentially from further distances.
Theorized Number of Men to Build:	Estimates vary, but likely thousands of workers over centuries.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula has a base of approximately 450×450 meters and a height of 55 meters. The Mexican Pyramid is mostly constructed from adobe brick. The Architects designed some of stone facings to constructed with volcanic rock. The layered structure, built over centuries, showcases the scale and material adaptation of Mesoamerican engineering.

Construction Techniques

Construction Facts

How did they build it?	Evidence suggests the use of “coatepantli” or serpent walls, earthen ramps that were raised as the pyramid grew, to transport materials.
The Tools and Materials Used	Obsidian tools for precise cutting of stone. Baskets woven from agave fibers for transporting adobe bricks and fill material.
Innovative Techniques	The use of “talud-tablero” architecture, a signature style of Teotihuacan, adapted to adobe brick construction, showing the advanced engineering skills.
Challenges Overcame	Maintaining the stability of the massive adobe structure during the rainy season, requiring careful planning of drainage and layering.
Evidence of planning, surveying, or engineering	The consistent orientation of the pyramid and the precise alignment of its platforms, suggesting careful surveying and astronomical observations.
Degree of manual labor	The construction was almost entirely manual, with no evidence of wheeled vehicles or complex machinery.

Construction of the Great Pyramid of Cholula relied heavily on manual labor and ingenuity. Stone tools shaped volcanic rock, while adobe bricks formed structural layers. Workers meticulously layered fill materials, building upon existing structures in phases, a unique technique. This process required significant organization and logistics, moving vast quantities of materials without modern machinery.

Despite being the largest pyramid in the world by volume, it was so overgrown that Hernán Cortés, upon his arrival in 1519, didn’t even realize it was a pyramid.

Interesting Fact

The Great Pyramid of Cholula: Astronomy/Math & Myth/Religion

Astronomy Facts

The role of mathematics in astronomy or calendrical systems:	The pyramid’s orientation may have been influenced by astronomical observations, which were closely tied to Mesoamerican calendrical systems.
Evidence of intentional astronomical orientation	The placement of other structures within the Cholula complex in relation to the pyramid, may show a level of astronomical planning for the entire city.
Alignments with specific celestial bodies	Research by scholars examining the pyramid’s orientation have noted potential alignments with the heliacal rising of certain stars, which were significant for Mesoamerican timekeeping.
Alignments with solstices, equinoxes, or other astronomical events:	The potential for the pyramid to act as a “shadow clock” during equinoxes has been explored. The pyramid’s shape and orientation could have been used to track the sun’s movement and mark the equinoxes.
The purpose or significance of these alignments	The alignments could have been used to synchronize ritual activities with celestial cycles, ensuring that ceremonies were performed at auspicious times.
Symbolic meanings of architectural elements	The stepped platforms represented sacred mountains, symbolizing the connection between the earthly and divine realms. Example: The tunnels represented the underworld.
Cosmological concepts:	The pyramid’s layered structure reflected the Mesoamerican concept of multiple levels of the cosmos.

Numbers & Math

Mathematics Facts

Unit of Measure	Researchers are attempting to decode potential numerical patterns within the pyramid’s dimensions and architectural features, looking for evidence of the vigesimal system in practical application.
Geometric Principles	Detailed analysis of the “talud-tablero” panels using photogrammetry and 3D modeling reveals precise angles and ratios within the designs.
Does it Exhibit Golden Ratio	Studies are employing statistical methods, such as chi-squared tests, to analyze the distribution of ratios between platform heights, base dimensions, and the overall pyramid height.
Use of mathematic tools or instruments:	Measuring cords, sighting devices, and possibly counting boards were likely used.
Number system used by the builders	The Mesoamerican vigesimal (base-20) number system was likely used in the planning and construction of the pyramid.

Symbolically, the Great Pyramid of Cholula exhibits a layered construction. representing cosmic levels, while murals depicted deities and rituals. The structure symbolized power, sacredness, and divine connection, reinforcing its role as a religious and political authority. Myths and legends, especially those of Quetzalcoatl, featured the pyramid. The overlay of Catholic symbolism post-conquest shows the evolution of religious expression, integrating indigenous meanings into a new framework. The pyramid stands as a testament to evolving religious symbolism.

Places of Sentiment

Sacred Spaces and Objects

The function and significance of specific areas or structures:	The pyramid itself was a sacred mountain, a symbolic representation of the cosmos. The tunnels likely served as ritual pathways. The “Altar of the Skulls” was a dedicated space for ritual offerings.
The types of artifacts, relics, or votive offerings found	Ceramic vessels, figurines, incense burners, and human remains.
The use of sacred symbols or iconography	Representations of Quetzalcoatl, as well as other Mesoamerican symbols related to fertility, death, and the cosmos.

The Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de los Remedios, a 16th-century church atop the Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico, the largest pyramid by volume.

Religion and Faith

Belief and Practise Facts

Deities and Worship	Primarily associated with Quetzalcoatl, a major Mesoamerican deity associated with wind, wisdom, and learning. Other deities likely venerated included those related to rain, fertility, and the underworld.
The types of rituals, ceremonies, or sacrifices performed	Rituals likely included offerings, dances, and possibly human sacrifice, as evidenced by the “Altar of the Skulls.” Ceremonies were likely tied to agricultural cycles and astronomical events.
Evidence of religious beliefs or practices found at the site	Artifacts like ceramic figurines, incense burners, and burial offerings provide evidence of religious practices. The “Altar of the Skulls” demonstrates ritualistic use of human remains.
The relationship between the landmark and other religious sites or traditions:	Cholula was connected to other major Mesoamerican religious centers, such as Teotihuacan. The Spanish conquest led to the integration of the site into the Catholic religious landscape.
How the religious practices changed over time:	As Cholula was influenced by various cultures, religious practices likely evolved. The influence of Teotihuacan, for example, would have brought changes. Later, the Spanish conquest led to syncretism, with the church on top representing a blend of indigenous and Catholic beliefs.
The role of the landmark in religious pilgrimages or festivals:	Cholula was a major pilgrimage center in Mesoamerica. Festivals were likely held to honor deities and mark important dates.

Symbolically, the pyramid’s layered construction represented cosmic levels, while murals depicted deities and rituals. The structure symbolized power, sacredness, and divine connection, reinforcing its role as a religious and political authority. Myths and legends, especially those of Quetzalcoatl, featured the pyramid. The overlay of Catholic symbolism post-conquest shows the evolution of religious expression, integrating indigenous meanings into a new framework. The pyramid stands as a testament to evolving religious symbolism.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula: Artifacts and Art

Artifacts and Art Facts

Types of Artifacts:	Numerous ceramic vessels, including bowls, jars, and effigy forms. Ceramic vessels, Obsidian tools, “Altar of the Skulls” Figurines, Incense burners
Most Infamous Art	Murals displaying figures with Teotihuacan stylistic influences, suggesting a period of intense cultural exchange.
Current Location	Artifacts are housed in museums, such as the site museum in Cholula, and some are displayed on-site. Murals are primarily in situ.
Artistic Influences	Mesoamerican artistic traditions, including Olmec and Teotihuacan influences.
Artistic Techniques	Murals were created using mineral pigments applied to plaster surfaces, with techniques including layering and outlining.
Symbolism in Art	Deities represented fertility, warfare, and cosmological forces, reflecting Mesoamerican religious beliefs.
State of Preservation	Murals are highly fragile, with fading pigments and damage from humidity and environmental factors, requiring ongoing conservation.

Nestled within Mexico’s Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley, the great pyramid of cholula benefits from a strategic geographical position. The valley’s volcanic mountain ranges supplied vital stone for its construction, while the temperate climate and fertile land supported essential agricultural practices. Built upon a natural hill and expanded through layered construction, this mexican pyramid reflects centuries of development. Cholula’s location along trade routes fostered cultural and economic exchange, and the valley’s abundant resources were instrumental in the pyramid’s monumental scale. This confluence of geography and resources allowed for the creation of this impressive structure.

A Toltec-style carving, possibly depicting a goddess, with potential connections to the Oaxaca region and Toltec influence.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula: Preservation and Challenges

Preservation Facts

Environmental factors	Seasonal rainfall and wind contribute to the erosion of the adobe brick surfaces, particularly on the unexcavated portions of the pyramid.
Human Activities:	Foot traffic from tourists compacts the soil and erodes pathways, particularly near the excavated tunnels.
Structural Issues	The adobe brick construction is susceptible to cracking and settling, particularly in areas where the underlying soil has shifted.
Pollution	Air pollution from nearby urban areas can contribute to the deterioration of the adobe surfaces.
Natural Disasters:	The region is seismically active, and earthquakes pose a significant threat to the pyramid’s structural integrity.
Aging	The natural aging process of the adobe material, combined with the cumulative effects of environmental factors, contributes to the ongoing degradation of the pyramid.
Data:	Regular surveys using LiDAR and photogrammetry are conducted to monitor changes in the pyramid’s surface and identify areas of erosion or instability.
International organizations (UNESCO, NGOs)	While not a UNESCO World Heritage Site, INAH collaborates with International organizations to maintain best preservation practices.

Conservation Status

Cholula faces erosion, weathering, and tourism impacts. Adobe brick decay and structural issues pose threats. Earthquakes are a risk. Urban pollution and aging contribute to degradation. INAH monitors site, however, public data is limited. Balancing preservation with tourism and managing the church’s weight are ongoing challenges.

Protection Efforts

INAH leads Cholula’s protection, conducting research and restoration. Efforts stabilize adobe, especially tunnels, and combat erosion. Mexican laws protect the site. International influence informs INAH’s work. Locals aid tourism. Balancing tourism and preservation is key, as is managing the church’s impact.

The Great Pyramid of Cholula: Alternative Theories & Debates

Conspiracies, Controversies & Questions

Conspiracy Theories

Ancient Technologies:	Some alternative theorists suggest advanced, unknown technologies were used in its construction.
Lost civilizations:	Some people suggest that the pyramid was built by a lost advanced civilization.
Extraterrestrial Involvement:	While less common than with other pyramids, some theories propose extraterrestrial influence.
Misinterpretations:	Some people misinterpret the size and complexity of the structure as evidence of things that are not supported by archeological evidence.

Ancient Astronaut Theory

Ancient astronaut theorists claim the Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico exhibit scale and complexity that required extraterrestrial aid. They cite size and alignment precision as proof. Yet, these theories lack scientific backing and mainstream archaeological support.

Hidden Chambers

Proponents assert that Cholula’s tunnel network extends beyond known limits, concealing undiscovered chambers. Though widely speculated, this theory faces significant challenges in verification, leaving the pyramid’s depths shrouded in mystery.

Advanced Technology

Alternative historians attribute Cholula’s construction to advanced technologies: sonic levitation, anti-gravity. They cite stone movement and precise architecture as evidence. Intriguing theories, yet unsupported by mainstream science.

A tunnel inside the Great Pyramid of Cholula, Mexico, the largest pyramid by volume, also known as Tlachihualtepetl.

Citations & References for “The Great Pyramid of Cholula” World Landmark Page

Archaeological and Historical References:

McCafferty, Geoffrey G. (2001). The Cholula Pyramid: A Sacred Mountain of Ancient Mexico. University of Texas Press.

Note: A fundamental resource for Cholula’s archaeology and history.

Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. (2012). Cholula: Ciudad Sagrada. Fondo de Cultura Económica.

Note: A comprehensive overview by a leading Mexican archaeologist.

Plunket, Patricia, and Michael Plunket. (2002). “Regional Culture in Cholula: Insights from the Painted Pyramids.” Ancient Mesoamerica 13(2), pp. 227-241.

Note: Provides insight into the cultural context of painted pyramids at Cholula.

López Luján, Leonardo. (2006). The Museum of the Great Temple: Sacred Precinct of Tenochtitlan. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and Artes de México.

Note: Offers valuable context for Mesoamerican religious practices.

Davies, Nigel. (1997). The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. Penguin Books.

Note: Provides a broad historical perspective on Mesoamerican civilizations.

Online Resources:

Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH): (inah.gob.mx)
- Note: Official website for information on Mexican archaeological sites.
Universidad de las Américas Puebla (UDLAP):
- Note: Search UDLAP’s publications or research databases for relevant anthropological studies. (Provide a link to the UDLAP Website)
UNESCO World Heritage Centre: (whc.unesco.org)
- Note: Useful for understanding heritage preservation (though Cholula is not a UNESCO site).