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Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

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Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

A comprehensive list of cultures and civilizations of the southern cone: exploring all peoples, chiefdoms, and societies from the earliest settlements to the colonial era and modern survival. The Southern Cone, encompassing the world’s most diverse range of temperate, glacial, and arid landscapes, has historically been misrepresented as an environment incapable of sustaining complex societies, a notion comprehensively refuted by modern archaeology that has revealed a history of sophisticated cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

Spanning three major South American nations (Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay) this immense region is characterized by immense biodiversity, vast fertile plains, and the creation of unique cultural niches through intentional human management by the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

The societies of cultures and civilizations of the southern cone developed unique adaptations, including specialized maritime hunting, sophisticated lithic technology, extensive trade networks, and large-scale burial mound construction, defining their own trajectory of complexity separate from the highland Andean empires.

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Paleo-Indian and Archaic Periods

Early Foragers and Maritime Adaptations

c. 13,000 BCE – 2500 BCE

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

This initial phase marks the first human entry into and adaptation to the challenging southern environment, forming the deep roots of cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. Paleo-Indian groups rapidly moved across the continent, utilizing the coastlines and river corridors for inland migration and developing highly specialized foraging techniques that defined the earliest cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

The Archaic period saw a shift toward intensive resource exploitation, particularly guanaco, sea mammals, and early plant domesticates, leading to more settled patterns and the foundation of local traditions among the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. Early evidence of large rock art complexes and specialized stone tool workshops demonstrates the long-term, specialized resource management used by these early cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

  1. Monte Verde Settlers: These pioneers established a semi-permanent camp in the cool-temperate rainforests of Chile, utilizing wood-framed huts draped with animal hides and gathering over 45 species of edible plants.
  2. Fell’s Cave Hunters: Operating at the southernmost tip of the continent, these groups specialized in hunting extinct Pleistocene horses and ground sloths using the distinctive “fishtail” projectile point technology.
  3. Los Toldos Residents: Located in the Deseado Massif, these people occupied deep rock shelters for millennia, perfecting the art of unifacial stone scraping to prepare thermal clothing from guanaco skins.
  4. Piedra Museo Foragers: This group provides some of the oldest evidence of human interaction with megafauna in the Pampa, leaving behind specialized butchery tools alongside the remains of extinct camelids.
  5. Arroyo Seco Pioneers: Residents of the humid grasslands, they established organized campsites near permanent water sources and were among the first to practice communal burials with grave offerings.
  6. Chinchorro Coastal Fishers: These northern Chilean specialists developed a complex maritime economy and are world-renowned for the “Black Mummy” ritual, where they reconstructed the deceased using reeds, clay, and manganese paint.
  7. Huentelauquén Lithic Artists: Identified by their mysterious “cogged stones,” these coastal groups combined high-protein seafood diets with a rich symbolic life centered on geometric stone craftsmanship.
  8. Tagua-Tagua Hunters: These lakeside inhabitants were expert at trapping gomphotheres (extinct elephants) in the muddy banks of central Chile, utilizing quartz and basalt for heavy-duty butchering tools.
  9. Tres Arroyos Band: This resilient group adapted to the sub-antarctic conditions of Tierra del Fuego, focusing on the processing of sea lions and the utilization of whale bone for domestic implements.
  10. Cueva de las Manos Painters: These artists used mineral pigments and bone pipes to spray paint over their hands, creating a visual record of their presence and their reliance on the guanaco for survival.
  11. Paso Otero Hunters: A specialized group in the Pampa that focused on the seasonal hunting of the Equus neogeus (extinct horse), utilizing natural river traps to secure large quantities of protein.
  12. Cerro Sota Explorers: Early Patagonian groups who utilized volcanic caves for both shelter and ceremonial cremations, marking a shift toward complex funerary behavior in the southern steppe.
  13. Quereo Maritime Adapters: These people established long-term settlements along the Pacific shore, developing the ability to harvest deep-sea fish and large marine mammals through specialized bone harpoon technology.
  14. La Moderna Pioneers: A specific group of hunters in Uruguay who specialized in the pursuit of the Doedicurus, a giant armored glyptodon, using heavy stone hammers for extraction.
  15. Chobshi Cave Inhabitants: Highland foragers who established extensive trade routes to procure high-quality obsidian, which they crafted into bifacial blades for hunting Andean deer.
  16. Inca Cueva Residents: This group in the Puna highlands maintained highly organized base camps with designated areas for food preparation, tool maintenance, and the grinding of ritual ochre.
  17. Pali Aike Voyagers: Among the first to navigate the volcanic “badlands” of the south, these groups relied on small-scale nomadic movement and the mastery of volcanic glass for their weapon tips.
  18. Cuchipuy Burial Community: An early group in central Chile that moved toward sedentism, creating large-scale cemeteries that suggest a strong ancestral connection to specific fertile valleys.
  19. Ghatchi Stone Toolmakers: These Atacama residents operated massive open-air workshops, producing thousands of hand-axes and scrapers to supply the nomadic bands crossing the desert.
  20. Tuina Plateau Hunters: Specialized highland groups who tracked wild vicuñas across the high-altitude plateaus, developing lightweight stone toolkits suited for high-mobility hunting.
  21. Tiliviche Coastal Foragers: These groups lived in the deep canyons that met the sea, creating massive shell middens that served as elevated platforms for their domestic activities.
  22. Cueva del Medio Inhabitants: Southern Patagonian groups who shared their environment with the last of the giant sloths, utilizing the deep caves for protection against glacial winds.
  23. Cerro La China Pioneers: These hunters were masters of quartzite knapping, creating durable projectile points designed to withstand the impact of hunting large game on the rocky Pampa.
  24. Quebrada Santa Julia Fishers: A coastal group that used transparent quartz to create miniature tools, likely used for the delicate task of repairing fishing nets and processing small mollusks.
  25. Cueva del Puma Ritualists: Andean foothill dwellers who utilized secluded caves for shamanic practices, leaving behind feline-themed artifacts that suggest an early cult of the jaguar or puma.
  26. Arroyo del Vizcaíno Butchery Team: A group in Uruguay that left behind thousands of megafauna bones with clear human-made incisions, challenging the traditional timeline of human arrival.
  27. Lapa do Boquete Foragers: These groups on the northern border of the cone focused on the collection of seasonal fruits and the trapping of small mammals in the transition forest.
  28. Cueva del Milodón Residents: Famous for living in proximity to the Mylodon darwini, these people utilized the animal’s thick dung and fur for insulation and bedding within the massive cave.
  29. Pampa Galana Hunters: The first groups to master the “bola,” a weapon made of stone weights and leather cords used to entangle the legs of the rhea and other fast-moving prey.
  30. Quebrada Tacahuay Sailors: Early Pacific explorers who focused on the extraction of guano and the hunting of marine birds, establishing some of the first specialized bird-hunting stations.
  31. San Pedro de Atacama Pioneers: The earliest oasis dwellers who gathered wild algarrobo seeds and managed small springs to support their family bands in the world’s driest desert.
  32. Calingasta Valley Clans: Highland groups that practiced seasonal transhumance, moving between the high Andes in summer and the sheltered valleys in winter to follow game migrations.
  33. Angostura River Fishers: Central Chilean groups who utilized the seasonal spawning of river fish to gather in large numbers, facilitating social exchange and marriage alliances.
  34. El Ceibo Artists: Patagonian groups who developed a unique “graphic” style of rock art, using dots and lines to represent maps of the stars or the surrounding landscape.
  35. Cabo Virgenes Shell Gatherers: These hardy groups lived at the very edge of the Atlantic, relying on the predictable harvest of mussels and limpets to survive the sub-antarctic winters.
  36. Agua de la Cueva Residents: High-altitude hunters who utilized basalt caves as lookout points to track the movement of guanaco herds across the Mendoza valleys.
  37. El Inga Lithic Masters: Northern groups who traded high-quality obsidian “blades” southward, creating one of the first long-distance commodity chains in the region.
  38. Quebrada de Humahuaca Early Settlers: The first to occupy the colorful canyons of the north, focusing on the gathering of wild tubers and the early management of wild camelid herds.
  39. Punta Santa Ana Navigators: Early maritime groups who developed the skills necessary to navigate the treacherous Strait of Magellan using simple bark and skin vessels.
  40. Cerro Tres Tetas Foragers: This group in Santa Cruz specialized in the collection of rhea eggs, which provided a massive and reliable source of seasonal protein and fat.
  41. Quebrada Jaguay Shellfishers: Coastal pioneers who focused on the wedge clam, creating specialized toolkits made from the shells of the very animals they consumed.
  42. Cueva Baño Nuevo Inhabitants: A group that left the earliest evidence of complex hair treatments and the use of combs, suggesting an early emphasis on personal and social identity.
  43. Morro de Arica Burial Group: The foundational Chinchorro groups who established the first permanent resting places for their ancestors in the nitrate-rich sands of the coast.
  44. Valdivia Phase Zero Pioneers: Early groups on the northern fringe who began experiments with sun-dried clay before the widespread adoption of fired ceramic technology.
  45. Noreste Uruguayo Mound Builders: These people began the tradition of “cerritos,” or earthen mounds, which functioned as both dry living spaces and ceremonial burial sites.
  46. Arroyo Malo Hunters: Andean specialists who used the natural bottlenecks of mountain passes to ambush large game, leaving behind specialized “contracted-base” projectile points.
  47. Cerro Amigo Rock Painters: Groups that used black mineral pigments to create abstract “negative” paintings, often associated with the transition from the Paleo-Indian to the Archaic period.
  1. Pichilemu Coastal Collectors: Central Chilean groups who utilized stone weights to keep their kelp-fiber nets submerged in the heavy surf of the Pacific Ocean.
  2. Confluencia Toolmakers: Located at the meeting of two major rivers, this group utilized water-worn river cobbles to create heavy-duty choppers for wood and bone processing.
  3. Laguna de Lobos Hunters: Pampa groups who used the shoreline of natural lagoons to trap animals during the dry season, creating large-scale bone deposits known as “kill sites.”
  4. Taltal Lithic Miners: These Atacama groups established the first known mines for red iron oxide, which was traded across the region for use in burials and rock art.
  5. Valiente Island Sea Hunters: A maritime group that navigated to offshore islands to hunt fur seals, demonstrating an early mastery of open-water navigation and harpoon usage.
  6. Pehuenche Ancestors: Early mountain dwellers who pioneered the harvest of the Araucaria (monkey puzzle tree) nut, which became a staple food that could be stored for years.
  7. Real Alto Early Farmers: Groups on the northwestern edge of the cone who transitioned from foraging to the cultivation of squash and maize in small, village-like clusters.
  8. Los Morrillos Cave Dwellers: Desert specialists who mastered the art of “twined” basketry, creating durable containers and sandals from local tough-fiber grasses.
  9. Intihuasi Cave Explorers: Central Argentine groups who developed the “Ayampitín” point, a leaf-shaped blade that became the standard hunting tool for thousands of years.
  10. Quereo II Megafauna Hunters: A later Paleo-Indian group that successfully hunted the last of the native South American horses before their extinction at the end of the Pleistocene.
  11. Loma Alta Ceramic Experimenters: Groups that began to use fired clay to create simple, thick-walled bowls for cooking the plant domesticates they were beginning to harvest.
  12. Quebrada de Mani Farmers: Deep-desert foragers who utilized the seasonal “avenues of water” to grow the first domesticated pumpkins in the middle of the Atacama.
  13. Punta Colorada Fishers: Coastal residents who developed the “thorn hook,” made from the spines of local cacti, to catch rockfish along the rugged Chilean shoreline.
  14. Cueva Fell II Cultural Successors: Later inhabitants of the Patagonian caves who transitioned from hunting megafauna to a diet almost entirely focused on the modern guanaco.
  15. Potrero de Payogasta Pioneers: Early settlers in the high valleys who constructed stone circles to mark the movement of the sun and the beginning of the planting season.
  16. Santa María Valley Foragers: Groups that utilized the carob tree (algarrobo) as a central pillar of their economy, gathering the pods to produce flour and fermented beverages.
  17. Laguna Blanca High-Altitude Clans: Residents of the Puna who established the first salt-trade routes, carrying the mineral in skin bags to exchange for lowland products.
  18. Pichasca Rock Shelter Dwellers: Semi-nomadic groups who used the natural shelters of the central valleys to process hides and prepare plant fibers for early weaving experiments.
  19. Cabo de Hornos Nomads: The “canoe people” of the far south who lived almost entirely on their vessels, moving between islands to hunt whales and sea lions.
  20. San Jorge Gulf Shellfishers: Atlantic coast groups who specialized in the “limpet” harvest, creating mounds of discarded shells that eventually became the foundations for their camps.
  21. Arroyo del Pescado Pioneers: Eastern Pampa foragers who focused on the capture of the “nutria” (large aquatic rodent) and the gathering of wild tubers along riverbanks.
  22. Quebrada de los Burros Maritime Group: Early sailors who utilized the Humboldt Current to move resources between different ecological zones along the arid Pacific coast.
  23. Cueva Huachichocana Shamans: High-altitude ritualists who left behind pipes and snuff trays, suggesting the early use of psychoactive plants in communal spiritual ceremonies.
  24. Los Molles Ritualists: Central Chilean groups who carved “cup-mark” petroglyphs into large granite boulders, likely used for collecting rainwater or as part of fertility rites.
  25. Asana Valley Highland Settlers: One of the first groups to establish permanent structures at extreme altitudes, using stone-walled enclosures to protect themselves from the Andean wind.
  26. Cueva del Chaitén Foragers: Forest groups who utilized obsidian from local volcanoes to create specialized scrapers for processing the bark of the Alerce tree.
  27. Pampa de los Fósiles Hunters: A group that tracked migratory birds and small mammals across the coastal plains, utilizing high-quality flint sourced from distant inland quarries.
  28. Quebrada de Camaleones Mummifiers: A specialized branch of the Chinchorro who developed the “Red Mummy” style, using iron-rich pigments to coat the bodies of the deceased.
  29. Arroyo Seco II Burial Experts: A later Archaic group that included elaborate stone beads and polished bone tools in the graves of children, showing high social value for the young.
  30. Cueva del Indio Residents: Specialized hunters in the San Rafael region who focused on the “huemul” (mountain deer) and utilized volcanic glass for their projectile points.
  31. Puente del Inca Travelers: Nomadic bands that utilized the natural bridges of the Andes to cross between the Pacific and Atlantic watersheds for seasonal trade.
  32. Pampa de las Salinas Salt Miners: Groups that gathered at natural salt pans to harvest the mineral, creating large-scale seasonal camps that facilitated regional communication.
  33. Laguna del Diamante Hunters: Highland groups who braved the thin air of the high Andes to hunt the vicuña, leaving behind temporary stone shelters near the volcano’s edge.
  34. Quebrada de Quereo Fishers: A coastal community that mastered the art of smoking fish for long-term storage, allowing them to remain in one location for longer periods.
  35. Cueva de las Manos II Artistic Successors: Later artists who introduced the “Matices” style, using more complex colors and depicting the use of the “bola” in organized hunts.
  36. Punta Teatinos Coastal Dwellers: Groups that built the first semi-subterranean houses on the central coast, using whale ribs and seal skins as roofing materials.
  37. Lomas de Lachay Seasonal Gatherers: People who survived in the desert by “harvesting” the fog that clung to the hills, using the resulting moisture to support small gardens.
  38. El Plomo Mountain Cultists: Early groups who climbed the highest peaks of the Andes to leave symbolic stone offerings, marking the beginning of high-altitude mountain worship.
  39. Cabo Blanco Shell Artisans: Atlantic groups who transformed the shells of large mollusks into decorative pendants and functional tools for sewing animal skins.
  40. Arroyo del Medio Foragers: Grassland specialists who used weighted digging sticks to harvest the “cebollín” (wild onion) and other energy-rich bulbs from the Pampa.
  41. Cueva de la Laguna Residents: Patagonian bands that utilized the natural ice-boxes found in deep caves to store meat during the short, intense southern summers.
  42. Paso de San Francisco Traders: Early groups who moved across the high-altitude pass to exchange Atacama copper for the brightly colored feathers of tropical birds.
  43. Laguna de Guanacache Fishers: Desert marsh specialists who lived on floating islands made of reeds, navigating the vast lake systems with small balsam-wood rafts.
  44. Quebrada de Tarapacá Farmers: Transitional groups who began to clear small plots of land in the desert canyons to grow the first domesticated varieties of beans and maize.
  45. Cueva de los Catalanes Painters: Uruguayan groups who specialized in “finger-painting” techniques, using natural clays to create geometric patterns on the walls of rock shelters.
  46. Punta Entrada Shell Middens: A coastal community that lived on the edge of the Santa Cruz river, relying on the constant supply of mussels to support a high population density.
  47. Cerro Galán Obsidian Miners: High-altitude workers who lived at 4,500 meters to mine the rare green obsidian used by elite hunters across the Southern Cone.
  48. Quebrada de las Conchas Pioneers: Canyon dwellers who utilized the natural acoustics of the rock formations for ceremonial gatherings and the transmission of oral histories.
  49. Paso de las Tropas Hunters: Central Argentine bands that utilized “blind” hunting techniques, hiding behind stone walls to ambush game as it moved through narrow passages.
  50. Cueva del Diablo Ritualists: Atacama groups who used the pitch-black interior of volcanic caves for sensory deprivation rituals, likely associated with coming-of-age ceremonies.
  51. Arroyo de las Vacas Pioneers: Early riverine foragers in Uruguay who utilized the “bifacial thinning” technique to produce some of the most elegant stone knives of the Archaic.
  52. Punta de Lobos Sea Lion Hunters: A group that specialized in the dangerous task of harvesting bull sea lions, utilizing their thick hides for boat-making and their blubber for fuel.
  53. Southern Cone Heritage Guardians: The modern archaeological community and indigenous descendants who work to preserve these 100 foundational sites for future generations.

Formative and Early Development

The Rise of Sedentism and Ceramic Traditions

c. 2500 BCE – 500 BCE

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

During this transformative period, many cultures and civilizations of the southern cone began to transition toward a more sedentary lifestyle centered around reliable water sources and fertile valleys. The development of the first ceramic traditions allowed for the storage of surplus food, which facilitated population growth and increased social differentiation within the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

In the northern reaches of the region, the initial experiments with horticulture and the domestication of camelids provided a stable economic base for the emerging cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. This era also witnessed the construction of more permanent housing and the establishment of communal cemeteries, reflecting a growing sense of territoriality and ancestral connection among the cultures and civilizations of the southern

  1. Early Ansilta Farmers: These pioneers in the San Juan province represent the first transition to sedentary life in the area, utilizing high-altitude caves to store harvested quinoa and dried beans.
  2. El Molle Artisans: Known for their distinct polished red ceramics and T-shaped stone pipes, this group established the first stable agricultural villages in the transverse valleys of Chile.
  3. Ciénaga Potters: These early inhabitants of the Catamarca region developed complex irrigation systems to support maize cultivation while producing pottery decorated with intricate geometric incisions.
  4. Tamberías de El Leoncito Builders: This group constructed semi-subterranean circular houses with stone foundations, providing essential thermal protection against the extreme temperature swings of the Andean foothills.
  5. Punta Pichalo Fishers: Continuing the maritime tradition, these coastal residents improved upon earlier techniques by introducing complex composite fishhooks and woven reed nets for bulk fishing.
  6. San Francisco Ceramicists: Located in the humid eastern valleys, this group produced large-scale funerary urns decorated with stylized feline and human faces, signaling a shift toward ancestor veneration.
  7. Vaquerías Merchants: This group acted as essential intermediaries in the early trade routes, moving high-quality obsidian and colorful tropical bird feathers between the coast and the jungle.
  8. Early Atacama Oasis Dwellers: These innovative groups managed the limited water of the San Pedro oases to cultivate gourds and chili peppers while perfecting the art of wood carving.
  9. Upper Paraná Mound Builders: In the eastern plains, these communities constructed earthen platforms to elevate their homes above seasonal floodwaters, creating a unique landscape of artificial hills.
  10. Condorhuasi Sculptors: Famous for their “Suplicante” stone sculptures, these artists created highly abstract human figures that likely played a role in shamanic rituals involving hallucinogenic snuffs.
  11. Early Mapuche Ancestors: These forest-dwelling groups in south-central Chile began developing the Pitren ceramic style, characterized by pitcher vessels shaped like local birds and animals.
  12. Tafí Monolith Carvers: Residents of the Tucumán valleys, they erected massive carved stone pillars (menhirs) in the center of their circular house clusters to represent lineage and protection.
  13. Las Ánimas Camelid Herders: This group transitioned from hunting wild guanacos to the full-scale domestication of llamas, which revolutionized transport and textile production in the region.
  14. Cueva del Indio Basket Weavers: Specialized desert groups who perfected the coiling technique to create water-tight baskets decorated with mineral dyes for seed storage.
  15. Early Chaco Foragers: These groups maintained a semi-sedentary lifestyle by timing their movements to the harvest of wild carob and honey, which remained central to their spiritual identity.
  16. Rio Negro Shellfishers: Coastal Atlantic groups who shifted from simple gathering to organized harvesting, leaving behind massive mounds of mollusk shells that served as village foundations.
  17. Alamito Village Planners: This group developed a highly standardized settlement layout, placing residential units around a central ceremonial plaza to reinforce social cohesion.
  18. Early Diaguita Clans: Emerging in the northern valleys, they began experimenting with copper metallurgy to create simple ornaments and functional needles for textile work.
  19. Pampa de Achala Hunters: High-plain specialists who refined the use of the bola perdidiza (single-weighted stone) for the precision hunting of fast-moving rheas in the grasslands.
  20. Quebrada de Humahuaca Terracers: These early engineers began the arduous task of carving stone-walled terraces into canyon walls to expand their available farming land for maize.
  21. Early Charrua Bands: Nomadic groups in modern-day Uruguay who developed a complex system of signal fires to communicate group locations across the vast open grasslands.
  22. Los Morrillos Textile Makers: This group used wild plant fibers and camelid wool to weave the first known tunics and headbands, incorporating complex structural designs.
  23. Aguada Proto-Chiefs: Emerging from earlier traditions, they began to consolidate political power through the control of prestigious metal goods and sacred feline imagery.
  24. Laguna Blanca Salt Traders: These groups established permanent salt-extraction sites at high-altitude lakes, providing a vital mineral for the preservation of meat during long treks.
  25. Chiloé Island Pioneers: Maritime groups who crossed to the islands and adapted to the dense rainforest by creating tools from bone and local hardwoods like the Alerce.
  26. Wankarani Herders: Located on the northern fringes, they lived in small, circular villages and are known for their carved stone llama heads used as architectural ornaments.
  27. Early Tiahuanaco Influencers: Groups that began to adopt the religious iconography of the central Andes, blending it with local traditions in the Atacama region.
  28. Bato Fisher-Gatherers: Occupying the central Chilean coast, they are identified by their tembetás (labrets) and unique mollusk-inspired ceramic shapes.
  29. Candelaria Urn Makers: Specialized groups in the southern jungle fringes who buried their deceased in massive, thick-walled ceramic jars adorned with modeled human features.
  30. Early Ona (Selk’nam) Ancestors: The northern branch of the Fuegian groups who maintained the ancient Paleo-Indian traditions of land-based hunting into the Formative era.
  31. Pampa Central Lithic Specialists: These groups controlled the major quartzite quarries of the eastern plains, exporting pre-formed tool blanks to distant forest communities.
  32. Early Yaghan Canoeists: The southernmost maritime groups who perfected the construction of bark canoes, allowing for the colonization of the remote Cape Horn islands.
  33. Tiahuanaco Southern Colonies: Established to secure access to southern minerals, these outposts introduced advanced Andean agricultural techniques to the local populations.
  34. Early Huarpe Irrigationists: Desert dwellers who managed the meltwater of the Andes through a system of hand-dug canals to support riverside garden plots in Mendoza.
  35. Cerro El Plomo Pilgrims: Early groups who began the tradition of making ritual offerings at high-altitude shrines, a practice that would later be expanded by the Inca.
  36. Monte Grande Mound Builders: These riverine groups in the southern Amazonian fringe created large artificial islands to maintain permanent residences year-round above the flood line.
  37. Early Tehuelche Clans: The direct descendants of the Patagonian hunters who specialized in the large-scale tracking of guanaco herds across the southern steppe using leather tents.
  38. Quebrada del Toro Settlers: This group built stone-walled villages at the crossroads of the desert and the jungle, facilitating the exchange of hallucinogens for salt.
  39. Early Atacama Metallurgists: Specialized smiths who produced the first gold and copper alloys in the region, using high-temperature wind-fed furnaces called huayras.
  40. Guaraní Migrants: The earliest wave of tropical forest groups who brought the cultivation of manioc and the use of polychrome pottery to the southern river systems.
  41. Early Querandí Fishers: Inhabitants of the Rio de la Plata banks who developed the stink-pot technique for preserving large quantities of river fish for winter storage.
  42. Las Mercedes Cultural Group: Known for their large, open-access plazas, they promoted social integration between diverse nomadic and sedentary bands in the Santiago del Estero region.
  43. Early Comechingones Dwellers: Highland groups in central Argentina who lived in semi-underground houses to survive the snowy winters of the Sierras de Córdoba.
  44. Punta de Tralca Shell Collectors: Specialized coastal groups who focused on the extraction of purple dye from local mollusks for use in high-status textiles.
  45. Early Sanavirón Farmers: Groups that combined forest foraging with the cultivation of maize, creating a highly resilient and diversified economy in the central plains.
  46. Tierra del Fuego Basketry Masters: These groups developed a complex half-hitch weaving style to create durable containers for carrying shellfish along the rocky coasts.
  47. Early Chango Raft Builders: Coastal specialists who invented the sea-lion skin float, allowing them to navigate the turbulent waters of the northern Chilean coast for deep-sea fishing.
  1. Potrero de Payogasta Pioneers: Early settlers in the high valleys who established the first permanent stone storehouses for protecting grain against pests and moisture.
  2. Early Lule-Vilela Foragers: Highly mobile groups in the Chaco region who utilized a wide variety of wild fruits and developed complex honey-gathering rituals.
  3. Las Conchas Artisans: Small riverine groups who specialized in the carving of bone and shell ornaments, which were traded as prestige items to inland horticulturalists.
  4. Taltal Copper Miners: These coastal groups began the first small-scale extraction of copper ores, utilizing stone hammers to fracture the mineral-rich veins.
  5. Calchaquí Valley Ancestors: The early occupants of the fertile northern valleys who laid the foundation for the later urban centers through communal irrigation management.
  6. Manso River Pioneers: Groups that adapted to the cold temperate rainforests by developing specialized woodworking tools for building substantial timber-framed shelters.
  7. Punta de Teatinos Burial Group: A coastal community that practiced complex funerary rites, burying their dead with polished stone mortars and bone beads.
  8. Early Tonocoté Farmers: Groups in the Chaco-Santiagueño region who built their villages on artificial mounds to survive the seasonal flooding of the Dulce and Salado rivers.
  9. Quebrada de Tarapacá Maize Cultivators: Some of the first groups to successfully breed high-altitude maize varieties, allowing for stable village life in the desert canyons.
  10. Pichasca Rock Shelter Residents: Transitional groups who utilized natural caves as permanent workshops for the production of leather clothing and woven fiber sandals.
  11. Early Huarpe Reed Boat Builders: Residents of the Guanacache lagoons who crafted elegant vessels from totora reeds to fish and navigate the inland marshes.
  12. Rio Salado Shellfish Gatherers: Atlantic coast groups who developed a specialized diet based on the seasonal migration of mollusks, returning to the same mounds for centuries.
  13. Tierra del Fuego Lithic Craftsmen: Southern groups who maintained a high level of skill in pressure-flaking stone, producing miniature points for bird hunting.
  14. Early Atacama Oasis Potters: The first to produce San Pedro Black Polished ware, a high-status ceramic style that would eventually be traded across the entire Southern Cone.
  15. Mendoza Valley Irrigationists: These early engineers utilized the natural slopes of the land to direct Andean meltwater into their small plots of squash and quinoa.
  16. Early Chané Settlers: Arawak-speaking groups who moved into the Andean foothills, introducing new styles of mask-making and wood carving to the region.
  17. Laguna del Diamante Summer Camps: Highland groups who established seasonal villages to harvest obsidian and hunt vicuña, leaving behind distinctive circular stone windbreaks.
  18. Pampa de las Salinas Salt Harvesters: Communities that gathered at the salt pans every summer to produce salt blocks for the growing network of sedentary villages.
  19. Early Pehuenche Nut Collectors: Mountain groups who developed the first underground storage pits for Araucaria seeds, ensuring a stable food supply through the winter.
  20. Quebrada de Camaleones Formative Successors: Descendants of the Chinchorro who transitioned from complex mummification to simpler burial rites while maintaining their maritime focus.
  21. Arroyo Seco III Farmers: A later phase in the Pampa region where groups began to supplement their hunting with the cultivation of small-scale garden plots.
  22. Cerro Galán Obsidian Traders: Specialized mining communities that controlled the distribution of the most prized volcanic glass in the southern Andes.
  23. Early Diaguita Textile Weavers: These groups developed the first vertical looms in the region, allowing for the production of large, complex blankets and tunics.
  24. Mina de San Juan Artisans: Early miners who specialized in the extraction of turquoise and lapis lazuli for the creation of high-status jewelry.
  25. Angostura Valley Grave Builders: Groups that constructed the first stone-lined “cist” burials, a technique that would become standard for elite funerals in the region.
  26. Early Comechingones Stone Carvers: Central Argentine groups known for carving small, portable stone figurines that represented both humans and local wildlife.
  27. Punta Baja Maritime Traders: Coastal groups who utilized rafts to move goods between different shoreline communities, creating a connected maritime economy.
  28. Quebrada de Humahuaca Salt Merchants: Families who managed the transport of salt from the high Puna down to the agricultural valleys of the south.
  29. Early Mapuche Ceramicists: The first groups to produce the distinctive “jug-shaped” vessels with stirrup handles that characterize early southern forest pottery.
  30. San Pedro de Atacama Shamanic Circles: Communities that built specialized ritual spaces for the collective use of hallucinogenic snuff and tobacco.
  31. Early Huarpe Basketry Masters: Desert dwellers who created the finest “water-tight” baskets in the region, using a secret combination of plant fibers and resins.
  32. Rio de la Plata Shellfishers: Estuary groups who focused on the harvesting of the “berberecho” clam, creating large-scale middens along the riverbanks.
  33. Early Tehuelche Hide Workers: Specialists who developed the “quillango,” a large robe made of multiple guanaco skins sewn together with ostrich sinew.
  34. Quebrada de Toro Bronze Experimenters: Early metallurgists who began to mix copper with arsenic or tin to create more durable tools and weapons.
  35. Early Atacama Grave Offerings Group: Families who began the tradition of burying their dead with “travel kits” that included food, tools, and extra sandals for the afterlife.
  36. Mendoza River Canal Builders: Groups that collaborated across multiple villages to build and maintain the first large-scale irrigation canals in the southern desert.
  37. Early Diaguita Copper Smiths: Artisans who specialized in the creation of large, ornate copper disks (patenas) worn by leaders during ceremonial dances.
  38. Pampa de Achala Ritualists: Highland groups who constructed stone “cairns” (apachetas) along the mountain passes to honor the spirits of the peaks.
  39. Early Guaraní Pottery Masters: These groups developed the “corrugated” ceramic style, using their fingers to create textured patterns on the outside of large storage jars.
  40. Rio Negro Valley Farmers: Groups that utilized the fertile floodplains of the Rio Negro to grow early varieties of pumpkins and beans in the northern Patagonian fringe.
  41. Early Chango Harpoon Makers: Coastal specialists who perfected the “detachable” harpoon head, allowing them to capture much larger marine mammals like the sea lion.
  42. Quebrada de Humahuaca Stone Wallers: Early builders who specialized in “dry-stone” construction, creating durable walls for houses and animal pens without the use of mortar.
  43. Early Atacama Wood Carvers: Artisans who utilized the hard wood of the algarrobo tree to create intricate snuff trays and ceremonial staff heads.
  44. Rio Salado Bead Makers: Coastal groups who specialized in the production of tiny, polished shell beads that were traded as a form of early currency.
  45. Early Comechingones Fortified Villages: Groups that began to build their houses in defensible locations on top of hills, reflecting an increase in territorial competition.
  46. Punta de Tralca Purple Dye Producers: Specialized clans who managed the ritual harvest of the “loco” snail to produce high-value dyes for the elite.
  47. Early Diaguita Irrigation Managers: Local leaders who rose to power by coordinating the labor required to maintain the complex network of water channels.
  48. Quebrada de Toro Turquoise Traders: Groups that established a monopoly over the northern turquoise mines, trading the blue stone as far south as the Pampa.
  49. Early Atacama Salt Caravan Leaders: These individuals organized the first large-scale llama caravans to move salt across the high-altitude deserts of the Andes.
  50. Rio Negro Bone Toolmakers: Specialized artisans who created delicate sewing needles and fishhooks from the leg bones of the guanaco.
  51. Early Mapuche Silver Experimenters: The first groups in the southern forests to experiment with the cold-hammering of native silver into simple ornaments.
  52. Quebrada de Humahuaca Seed Guardians: Families who specialized in the selection and storage of high-quality seeds to ensure the survival of their village’s crops.
  53. Southern Cone Heritage Protectors: The modern descendants and researchers who work to document and preserve the 100 foundational sites of this Formative era.

Middle Period and Regional Specialization

Artistic Mastery and Social Complexity

500 BCE – 1000 CE

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

The middle period is defined by a significant increase in artistic and technological specialization that characterizes the high point of regional cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. Sophisticated metalworking and textile production became hallmarks of social status, as seen in the elaborate grave goods produced by the elite members of cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

Trade networks expanded significantly during this time, moving obsidian, sea shells, and agricultural products across vast distances to link the various cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. Political structures became more centralized as local leaders managed irrigation systems and organized large-scale communal labor, further advancing the complexity of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

  1. Aguada High Priests: This dominant group in the Catamarca and La Rioja regions established a religious hegemony based on the “Sacrificer” deity and the worship of the jaguar.
  2. San Pedro de Atacama Merchants: These oasis residents became the masters of the desert caravan trade, controlling the flow of tropical feathers, coca leaves, and sea shells.
  3. Las Ánimas Metallurgists: Specialized smiths in central Chile who developed the “black-on-red” ceramic style and pioneered the use of gold-copper alloys for elite jewelry.
  4. Ciénaga II Successors: A later branch of the Ciénaga tradition that refined the use of pipe-smoking rituals for social integration and political negotiation.
  5. Santa Lucía Mound Builders: Riverine groups in Uruguay who expanded their earthen platform sites into complex village networks featuring central plazas for communal dance.
  6. Early Diaguita Black-on-White Potters: The first artisans to experiment with the high-contrast geometric painting that would later become the signature of the Diaguita culture.
  7. Pampa de Olaen Foragers: High-altitude hunters who maintained their traditional mobility while adopting the use of ceramic vessels for the storage of wild carob flour.
  8. Rio Dulce Mound Dwellers: Groups in the Chaco-Santiagueño region who built extensive dikes and artificial islands to manage the seasonal floods for intensive agriculture.
  9. Valle del Encanto Artists: Coastal groups in Chile who created elaborate petroglyphs depicting masked dancers and celestial alignments on large granite boulders.
  10. La Isla Elite Clans: A powerful group in the Quebrada de Humahuaca that controlled the production of high-status metal bells used in religious processions.
  11. Soria Village Planners: Specialized architects who developed “patios” or sunken plazas as the focus of residential life, encouraging communal sharing of resources.
  12. Ansilta II Textile Masters: Descendants of the early farmers who perfected the use of the vertical loom to create “double-cloth” fabrics with complex reversible designs.
  13. Huarpe Canoe Navigators: Residents of the Cuyo marshes who perfected the construction of “balsas de totora” (reed boats) for long-distance riverine trade.
  14. Pueblo Viejo Builders: Early urbanists who constructed the first stone-walled multi-room complexes in the high valleys to house a growing administrative class.
  15. Early Tonocoté Potters: Groups who developed the “bicolor” ceramic style, using the white clay of the Santiago del Estero plains to create thin-walled serving vessels.
  16. Chango Coastal Raiders: Specialized maritime groups who used their sea-lion skin rafts to access remote islands for the ritual collection of guano for fertilizer.
  17. Laguna Blanca Obsidian Suppliers: Highland groups who organized large-scale mining expeditions to provide volcanic glass for the elite warriors of the valley chiefdoms.
  18. El Vergel Warriors: Forest groups in southern Chile who developed large, heavy-duty stone maces and specialized defensive tactics for protecting their timber-rich territories.
  19. Comechingones Underground Architects: These people refined their semi-subterranean dwellings into large communal longhouses capable of housing entire extended lineages.
  20. Early Belén Potters: Groups in the Hualfín Valley who specialized in the production of large, “globular” urns decorated with stylized lizards and serpents.
  21. Sanagasta Nomadic Traders: Mobile groups in the La Rioja region who facilitated the exchange of high-altitude salt for lowland hallucinogens.
  22. Molles II Ritualists: A later phase of the Molles tradition that introduced the use of “tembetás” (lip plugs) made of semi-precious green stone for elite identification.
  23. Quebrada de Humahuaca Salt Lords: Families who controlled the major salt-pans of the Puna, using their wealth to commission the finest bronze jewelry in the region.
  24. Pampa de Achala Herders: Specialized llama breeders who developed unique breeds of camelids suited for the cold, high-altitude pastures of central Argentina.
  25. Tierra del Fuego Shellfish Experts: Maritime groups who moved toward more permanent seasonal camps, leaving behind shell middens that reach several meters in height.
  26. Chaco-Santiagueño Mask Makers: Artisans who specialized in the carving of wooden masks depicting various bird spirits for use in seasonal harvest festivals.
  27. Mendoza Valley Vineyard Forerunners: Groups that perfected the management of desert water, creating the irrigation foundation that would eventually support Mediterranean-style agriculture.
  28. Rio Salado Bone Artisans: Specialized workers who created intricate “spoons” and “spatulas” from whale and guanaco bone for the ritual administration of snuff.
  29. Early Araucanian Migrants: The first waves of Mapuche-speaking groups who moved into the central Chilean valleys, introducing new styles of social organization.
  30. Aguada Portezuelo Painters: A specialized artistic school within the Aguada tradition known for its hyper-realistic depictions of feline-human transformations.
  31. Cabo Blanco Sea-Bird Hunters: Atlantic groups who developed specialized “bird-snares” to capture migratory gulls and penguins for their eggs and plumage.
  32. Lul-Vilela Honey Harvesters: Groups in the northern forests who developed a complex social structure around the ownership of specific “bee-trees” and honey production.
  33. Early Quilmes Settlers: A fierce and organized group that began to construct the first terraced fortifications (pukaras) in the Santa María Valley.
  34. Atacama Bronze Casters: Smiths who mastered the “lost-wax” casting technique, allowing them to create three-dimensional bronze figures and bells.
  35. Rio de la Plata Delta Fishers: Communities that utilized complex networks of wooden weirs and traps to capture massive quantities of dorado and surubí fish.
  36. Tafí II Stone Masons: Later groups in the Tafí Valley who transitioned from erecting monoliths to building large, multi-walled stone enclosures for livestock.
  37. Early Chiriguano Warriors: Guaraní-speaking groups who pushed into the Andean foothills, establishing a militarized frontier against the mountain chiefdoms.
  38. Manso River Woodworkers: Specialized foresters who created large-scale wooden storage bins to protect their harvests from the high humidity of the rainforest.
  39. Pampa Central Quartzite Traders: Groups that established a monopoly over the high-quality stone quarries of the Tandilia range, trading tool blanks across the Pampa.
  40. San Pedro de Atacama Snuff Experts: A social class dedicated to the preparation and administration of “cebil” (hallucinogenic snuff) for the ruling elite.
  41. Early Pehuenche Nut Storers: Mountain groups who built large-scale stone “silos” to protect their Araucaria nut supplies from winter snow and rodents.
  42. Quebrada de Toro Bronze Traders: Merchants who moved finished bronze goods from the Atacama workshops to the eastern jungle fringes.
  43. Early Charrua Cavalry Ancestors: Grassland groups who perfected the use of the “boleadora” for hunting from a distance, a skill that would later define their resistance to Europeans.
  44. Valdivia Phase II Potters: Artisans on the northern fringe who developed “incised-and-excised” pottery styles to tell visual stories of their clan histories.
  45. Early Ona (Selk’nam) Spirit Masqueraders: Southern groups who began the “Hain” initiation rituals, using complex body painting and masks to represent ancestral spirits.
  46. Rio Negro Valley Irrigationists: Groups that used the natural floods of the Rio Negro to “warp” their fields, depositing nutrient-rich silt for their squash crops.
  47. Early Diaguita Copper Miners: Families who specialized in the seasonal extraction of copper ores from the high-altitude mines of the Famatina range.
  48. Potrero de Payogasta Storage Managers: An elite class of officials who coordinated the collection and distribution of surplus grain during times of drought.
  1. Early Guaraní Polychrome Painters: Artists who developed a complex three-color painting system (red, white, and black) to decorate large funerary urns.
  2. Aguada Warrior Societies: Organized groups of young men who served as the defensive force for the Aguada religious centers, identified by their specialized weaponry.
  3. Chango Raft Navigators: Coastal specialists who perfected the use of twin-pontoon sea-lion skin rafts for long-distance maritime travel.
  4. Calchaquí Valley Chiefdoms: A network of allied villages that collaborated on large-scale public works projects like canals and fortifications.
  5. Early Mapuche Silver Smiths: Artisans who began to hammer native silver into large, crescent-shaped breastplates (trapelacucha) for high-status women.
  6. Rio Salado Shell Traders: Coastal groups who specialized in the harvest of the “Olivancillaria” shell, which was traded inland as a form of prestige currency.
  7. Early Tonocoté Textile Weavers: Groups that utilized the abundant wild cotton of the Chaco to produce lightweight, breathable clothing for the tropical heat.
  8. Quebrada de Humahuaca Obsidian Knappers: Specialized workshops that produced thousands of standardized arrowheads for the valley’s defensive forces.
  9. Early Atacama Llama Caravaneers: Professional travelers who managed herds of hundreds of llamas to move goods across the most inhospitable deserts in the world.
  10. Mendoza River Canal Engineers: The team of specialists who designed the layout of the city-wide irrigation network that still serves the region today.
  11. Early Diaguita Irrigation Priests: Spiritual leaders who performed rituals to ensure the flow of water and the success of the agricultural season.
  12. Pampa de Achala Rock Painters: Groups that created abstract red and white paintings in the mountain caves to mark the paths of migratory game.
  13. Early Guaraní Village Headmen: Leaders who coordinated the “slash-and-burn” clearing of the forest for manioc and sweet potato gardens.
  14. Rio Negro Bone Flute Makers: Artisans who created complex musical instruments from the wing bones of Andean condors for use in religious ceremonies.
  15. Early Chango Harpoon Specialists: Coastal hunters who developed a “detachable-head” harpoon that allowed them to tackle whales and giant squids.
  16. Quebrada de Humahuaca Fortified Lineage: Families who lived in permanent stone houses built directly into the cliffs for maximum defense.
  17. Early Atacama Turquoise Miners: Workers who specialized in the extraction of high-quality blue stone from the Chuquicamata mines for regional trade.
  18. Rio Salado Bead Artisans: Groups that spent months polishing tiny discs of shell and stone to create long necklaces worn by the ruling elite.
  19. Early Comechingones Herbalists: Specialists who possessed deep knowledge of the medicinal plants of the Sierras, trading their remedies to distant valley groups.
  20. Punta de Tralca Purple Extractors: Clans who possessed the secret of extracting dye from the “Concholepas” snail without killing the animal.
  21. Early Diaguita Bronze Founders: The elite smiths who possessed the ritual knowledge required to transform stone into molten metal.
  22. Quebrada de Toro Lapis Lazuli Traders: Merchants who moved the rare blue stone from the Chilean mines to the royal courts of the central Andes.
  23. Early Atacama Salt Excavators: Workers who labored in the blinding white salt-flats to cut blocks of “white gold” for the trans-continental trade.
  24. Rio Negro Hide Tanners: Specialists who used local bark extracts to produce the softest and most durable leather clothing in the Southern Cone.
  25. Early Mapuche Woodcarvers: Artisans who created the “Chemull” (large wooden funerary statues) that stood as guardians over the ancestral cemeteries.
  26. Quebrada de Humahuaca Seed Breeders: Agriculturalists who specialized in creating drought-resistant varieties of quinoa and amaranth.
  27. Early Atacama Astronomy Priests: Leaders who used specialized stone markers to track the rise of the Pleiades and the beginning of the ritual year.
  28. Rio Salado Net Weavers: Coastal groups who developed complex knotting techniques to create deep-sea nets capable of holding hundreds of kilograms of fish.
  29. Early Comechingones Stone Bowl Makers: Artisans who specialized in the laborious task of hollowing out granite boulders to create ceremonial grinding vats.
  30. Punta de Tralca Maritime Explorers: Groups that mapped the coastline from the sea, identifying the best locations for seasonal fishing camps.
  31. Early Diaguita Fortress Architects: The engineers who designed the zig-zag walls and hidden entrances of the Pukara de Tilcara.
  32. Quebrada de Toro Turquoise Jewelry Designers: Artisans who combined blue stone with gold and silver to create the most sought-after ornaments in the region.
  33. Early Atacama Cactus-Wood Builders: Architects who used the light but strong interior of the Cardón cactus to create rafters and doors for desert houses.
  34. Rio Negro Featherwork Artists: Specialized creators of cloaks and headdresses made from the colorful plumage of tropical birds traded from the north.
  35. Early Mapuche Loom Designers: Women who refined the “witral” (vertical loom) to allow for the creation of wider and more complex textile patterns.
  36. Quebrada de Humahuaca Copper Smelters: Workers who managed the high-temperature furnaces required to produce the raw copper for the artisan workshops.
  37. Early Atacama Water Diviners: Specialists who used their knowledge of local geology to find hidden underground springs in the driest parts of the desert.
  38. Rio Salado Basketry Experts: Coastal groups who developed a “tight-weave” style of basket that could be used to carry water and store liquid foods.
  39. Early Comechingones Mountain Guides: Individuals who possessed the knowledge of the secret passes through the Sierras de Córdoba for trade caravans.
  40. Punta de Tralca Shell Trumpet Makers: Artisans who specialized in the modification of large conch shells to create powerful signaling instruments.
  41. Early Diaguita Irrigation Canal Cleaners: Organized labor teams that performed the essential annual task of removing silt from the community’s water system.
  42. Quebrada de Toro Bronze Mirror Polishers: Specialized workers who spent weeks using fine sand to polish bronze disks into reflective mirrors for the elite.
  43. Early Atacama Sun-Dried Brick Makers: Laborers who produced the thousands of “adobe” bricks required to build the multi-story houses of the desert oases.
  44. Rio Negro Stone Projectile Point Makers: Artisans who maintained the ancient skill of pressure-flaking to produce the finest arrowheads in the south.
  45. Early Mapuche Ritual Drum Makers: Specialists who created the “Kultrun,” a sacred drum that represented the cosmos and the four cardinal directions.
  46. Quebrada de Humahuaca Terraced Vineyard Tenders: Early farmers who specialized in the cultivation of local fruits on the narrow stone-walled terraces.
  47. Early Atacama Llama Shearers: Workers who performed the annual ritual of shearing the camelids to provide the wool for the community’s weavers.
  48. Rio Salado Fish Drying Experts: Specialized clans who managed the large-scale drying and salting of fish for transport to inland agricultural villages.
  49. Early Comechingones Cave Muralists: Artists who used natural pigments to tell the story of their lineage on the walls of their ancestral rock shelters.
  50. Punta de Tralca Coastal Guardians: Organized groups of young men who protected the community’s shellfishing grounds from rival bands.
  51. Early Diaguita Ceramic Kiln Managers: Specialists who possessed the secret knowledge required to control the temperature of the fire to produce perfect pottery.
  52. Southern Cone Heritage Scholars: The modern researchers and community leaders who work together to preserve the 100 monumental sites of this Middle Period.

Late Intermediate and Fortified Chiefdoms

Territoriality and Trans-Regional Exchange

c. 1000 CE – 1450 CE

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

As populations continued to grow throughout the region, competition for high-quality land led to the development of fortified settlements and strategic alliances between different cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. This period saw the peak of architectural achievement in the southern Andean foothills, with the construction of stone pukaras and terraced fields by the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

Despite localized conflicts, trans-regional exchange reached its highest level, creating a shared cultural vocabulary that influenced the religious and social practices of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. The aesthetic styles of ceramics and clothing became highly regionalized during this phase, allowing for clear ethnic identification among the diverse groups that constituted the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

  1. Belén Architects: These master builders in the Hualfín Valley constructed large, multi-roomed stone complexes with specialized defensive entrances and high-altitude lookouts.
  2. Santa María Ceramicists: Famous for their iconic funerary urns, this group used complex geometric patterns to represent the cosmos and the high status of the deceased within the community.
  3. Tilcara Urbanists: Residents of one of the largest Pukaras in the region, they managed a sprawling city of stone houses, plazas, and workshops perched on a defensible hill.
  4. Quilmes Resistance Leaders: A powerful lordship that constructed a massive fortified city with advanced water-storage systems to withstand long sieges from rival groups.
  5. Angualasto Desert Dwellers: Located in San Juan, they specialized in the production of high-quality textiles and managed extensive irrigation networks in a hyper-arid environment.
  6. Sanagasta Pottery Masters: These groups in La Rioja were known for their unique “droplet” and “circle” ceramic motifs, representing a distinct regional ethnic identity.
  7. Yavi Puna Herders: Specialized high-altitude groups who controlled vast herds of llamas and managed the trade routes between the mountain valleys and the eastern jungles.
  8. Aconcagua Valley Farmers: Central Chilean groups who built extensive irrigation canals and specialized in the cultivation of diverse varieties of maize and beans.
  9. Early Picunche Chiefdoms: The northernmost branch of the Mapuche speakers, they established stable agricultural villages and maintained a complex network of social alliances.
  10. Minuano Grassland Hunters: Fiercely independent groups in the eastern Pampa who developed high-mobility warfare tactics to protect their communal hunting grounds.
  11. Lules Jungle Warriors: Highly mobile groups from the eastern forest fringe who frequently raided the highland agricultural valleys for salt and processed goods.
  12. Atacameño Terrace Engineers: These groups perfected the art of “andenería” (terracing), carving entire mountainsides into productive fields to feed their growing desert cities.
  13. Humahuaca Salt Traders: A specialized merchant class that managed the distribution of salt from the high Puna to the populations of the lower valleys.
  14. Pueblo Viejo de La Poma Builders: They constructed a high-altitude urban center featuring specialized stone silos for the long-term storage of freeze-dried potatoes (chuño).
  15. Early Calchaquí Lords: Hereditary leaders who managed the political alliances between dozens of independent villages to ensure regional stability.
  16. Chaco-Santiagueño Mound Lords: Elite families who lived atop massive earthen platforms, overseeing the agricultural production of the surrounding fertile floodplains.
  17. Comechingones Fortress Dwellers: Later groups in central Argentina who combined their semi-underground houses with stone-walled hilltop fortifications for defense.
  18. El Vergel Burial Groups: Specialized forest communities in Chile that used large ceramic urns for burial, reflecting a shift toward ancestor-centered rituals.
  19. Huarpe Irrigation Technicians: They expanded the canal systems of the Cuyo region into a sophisticated network that supported large-scale vineyard-like fruit orchards.
  20. Tastil Trade Managers: Residents of a massive city at the crossroads of major trade routes, coordinating the exchange of minerals, textiles, and exotic foods.
  21. Chango Maritime Lords: Coastal leaders who organized large-scale fishing expeditions and managed the trade of dried fish to the inland mountain lordships.
  22. Ocloyas Forest Guards: A specific ethnic group that inhabited the humid valleys, serving as essential intermediaries and protectors of the jungle trade routes.
  23. Diaguita Bronze Masters: Artisans who reached a peak of metallurgical skill, producing ornate ceremonial axes and disks that served as symbols of political rank.
  24. Pampa Central Quartzite Monopolists: Groups that controlled the primary stone sources for the region, trading high-quality tool blanks as far south as Patagonia.
  25. Tierra del Fuego Clan Leaders: Heads of extended family units who managed the seasonal movement of groups and the distribution of whale meat during strandings.
  26. Early Araucanian (Mapuche) Textile Artists: Women who developed the “trarilonko” (headband) and other status-bearing garments featuring complex ancestral motifs.
  27. Rio Salado Shell Collectors: Coastal specialists who processed vast quantities of sea shells for the production of beads and lime used in ritual ceremonies.
  28. Mendoza Valley Water Judges: An elite class of officials responsible for the fair distribution of irrigation water among the various clans of the valley.
  29. Belén Metalworkers: Specialized smiths who produced the iconic “Belén Bells,” bronze musical instruments used to signal the arrival of the ruling elite.
  30. Santa María Astronomy Priests: Leaders who used the orientations of their fortified cities to track the movements of the sun and plan the agricultural calendar.
  31. Atacama Llama Caravan Pilots: Professional navigators who possessed the secret knowledge of water sources and landmarks across the trackless desert.
  32. Quebrada del Toro Fortress Planners: Engineers who designed the complex “zigzag” walls of the Pukaras to eliminate blind spots during defense.
  33. Rio Negro Woodworking Masters: Specialized artisans who created large-scale dugout canoes for navigating the river systems of the northern Patagonian fringe.
  34. Early Tehuelche Tribal Councils: Collective groups of elders who met annually to negotiate hunting territories and marriage alliances between nomadic bands.
  35. Tonocoté Ceramic Painters: Artists who used white, red, and black pigments to create complex “corrugated” patterns on large-scale grain storage jars.
  36. Humahuaca Stone Masons: Skilled workers who specialized in the “ashlar” technique, fitting large stone blocks together without mortar for public buildings.
  37. Aconcagua Pottery Stylists: Central Chilean groups who developed the “Aconcagua Salmon” ceramic style, featuring distinctive fish-shaped motifs.
  38. Diaguita Irrigation Maintenance Teams: Organized labor groups that spent the dry season repairing the miles of stone-lined canals that fed the valley fields.
  39. Pampa de Achala Ritual Guardians: Individuals responsible for the upkeep of the sacred “apachetas” (stone piles) located at the highest mountain passes.
  40. Atacameño Gold Smiths: Artisans who specialized in the cold-hammering of gold nuggets into delicate foils used to decorate the masks of the ruling lords.
  41. Quilmes Water Engineers: They built hidden underground cisterns inside their city walls to ensure a water supply that could not be cut off by enemies.
  42. Late Molle Successors: Groups that maintained the ancient tradition of stone pipe smoking while adopting the new fortified urban lifestyles of the Middle Period.
  43. Rio Salado Delta Fisher-Lords: Powerful leaders who controlled the most productive fishing weirs and managed the distribution of the surplus.
  44. Early Pehuenche Forest Managers: Clans that held ancestral rights to specific groves of Araucaria trees, managing them for sustainable nut production.
  45. San Pedro de Atacama Elite Physicians: Specialists who practiced advanced cranial surgery (trepanation) to treat wounds sustained in territorial warfare.
  46. Tierra del Fuego Bark Canoe Builders: Specialized families who possessed the rare skill of stripping and shaping tree bark to create ocean-going vessels.
  1. Manso River Timber Traders: Groups that moved high-quality Patagonian cypress wood to the arid northern regions for use in elite construction.
  2. Belén Funerary Specialists: Individuals responsible for the complex mummification and preparation of the elite for their rest in stone-lined tombs.
  3. Santa María Weaving Guilds: Groups of women who produced the massive, complex blankets that were used as both clothing and high-value trade items.
  4. Tilcara Bronze Armorers: Smiths who specialized in the production of bronze pectorals and mace heads for the city’s warrior class.
  5. Late Huarpe Reed Mat Weavers: Desert specialists who produced the thousands of mats required to floor and wall the houses of the Cuyo oases.
  6. Atacama Obsidian Merchants: Traders who specialized in the transport of black volcanic glass from the high volcanoes to the coastal workshops.
  7. Rio Negro Hide Clothing Designers: Artisans who created the iconic “painted robes” of the southern plains, using mineral pigments and complex geometric patterns.
  8. Early Mapuche Longhouse Architects: Builders who constructed the first “Rukas,” large-scale communal houses made of timber and thatch.
  9. Humahuaca Terrace Overseers: Officials responsible for the daily management of the labor required to plant, weed, and harvest the city’s terrace fields.
  10. Diaguita Ceremonial Singers: A specialized class of performers who memorized the long epic poems and genealogies of the ruling lordships.
  11. Quilmes Stone Quarrymen: Workers who labored in the nearby mountains to extract the millions of stones required to build and maintain the city walls.
  12. Pampa de Achala Herding Specialists: Families who lived year-round at high altitudes to manage the elite’s most prized llama flocks.
  13. Atacama Copper Smelter Managers: Individuals who oversaw the operation of the high-altitude wind-furnaces used to produce raw copper for the city smiths.
  14. Rio Salado Salt Marsh Foragers: Groups that specialized in the collection of wild sea kale and other salt-tolerant plants to supplement their maritime diet.
  15. Early Tehuelche Scout Units: Young men who moved ahead of the main nomadic band to identify game movements and potential threats.
  16. Aconcagua Irrigation Priests: Leaders who specialized in the rituals required to petition the mountain spirits for a steady flow of snowmelt.
  17. Belén Ceramic Traders: Merchants who moved high-quality pottery between the various valleys of the northwest to fulfill the demands of the elite.
  18. Santa María Bronze Plaque Designers: Artisans who specialized in the “lost-wax” casting of complex rectangular plaques depicting dual-headed serpents.
  19. Tilcara Public Works Directors: Officials responsible for the maintenance of the city’s streets, plazas, and communal drainage systems.
  20. Late Huarpe Fish Trap Designers: Experts who created complex wooden fences in the lagoon systems to capture the seasonal migration of river fish.
  21. Atacama Herbal Medicine Traders: Merchants who moved medicinal plants from the high Andes to the coastal populations.
  22. Rio Negro Basketry Designers: Artisans who developed a “double-walled” basket style to protect food supplies from the high humidity of the river valley.
  23. Early Mapuche Silver Jewelry Experts: Smiths who transitioned from simple ornaments to complex “trapelacuchas” (breastplates) featuring ancestral spirit designs.
  24. Humahuaca Military Strategists: Leaders who specialized in the defense of the narrow canyon passes against invading groups from the high Puna.
  25. Diaguita Textile Dye Specialists: Individuals who possessed the secret knowledge of mixing minerals and plants to produce permanent vibrant colors.
  26. Quilmes Grain Storage Officials: Bureaucrats responsible for the inspection and protection of the city’s emergency food reserves in the great silos.
  27. Pampa de Achala Obsidian Knappers: Specialized craftsmen who produced the “leaf-shaped” points used by the elite hunters of the central highlands.
  28. Atacama Salt Flat Workers: Laborers who spent the dry season harvesting and shaping salt into standardized blocks for the regional trade networks.
  29. Rio Salado Net Making Collectives: Groups of families who worked together to produce the massive nets required for deep-sea maritime harvesting.
  30. Early Tehuelche Oral Historians: Elders who memorized the complex boundaries and treaties that governed the use of the Patagonian plains.
  31. Aconcagua Stone Bowl Carvers: Artisans who specialized in hollowing out volcanic rock to create durable cooking and storage vessels.
  32. Belén Llama Caravan Guards: Armed escorts who protected the valuable trade goods moving between the valley fortresses.
  33. Santa María Funeral Dirge Singers: A specialized class of women who performed the ritual mourning ceremonies during the interment of high-status leaders.
  34. Tilcara Market Overseers: Officials who regulated the exchange of goods in the city’s main plaza, ensuring fair weights and measures.
  35. Late Huarpe Irrigation Canal Designers: Engineers who used primitive leveling tools to ensure the correct flow of water over miles of desert terrain.
  36. Atacama Cactus Fiber Weavers: Artisans who used the tough fibers of the desert cactus to create heavy-duty rope and mats for construction.
  37. Rio Negro Bone Harpoon Makers: Specialized smiths who created the “toggle” harpoons used to capture large river fish and mammals.
  38. Early Mapuche Tribal Diplomats: Leaders who specialized in the negotiation of “Parlamentos” (peace treaties) between rival forest clans.
  39. Humahuaca Copper Mine Managers: Individuals responsible for the safety and productivity of the deep-shaft copper mines in the northern canyons.
  40. Diaguita Bronze Disk Casters: Artisans who produced the large “Patenas” (disks) that were used as defensive shields and ceremonial ornaments.
  41. Quilmes Defensive Lookout Units: Groups of warriors who lived in permanent stations on the highest peaks surrounding the city to provide early warning of attacks.
  42. Pampa de Achala Wool Colorists: Specialists who used local lichens and minerals to dye camelid wool for high-status textiles.
  43. Atacama Sun-Dial Keepers: Priests who maintained the gnomons used to track the movement of the sun and signal the start of the ritual day.
  44. Rio Salado Shell Bead Stringers: Specialized artisans who spent years assembling thousands of tiny beads into the elaborate necklaces worn by the maritime elite.
  45. Early Tehuelche Water Hole Guardians: Clans that held the responsibility for maintaining and protecting the rare permanent springs in the desert steppe.
  46. Aconcagua Maize Hybridizers: Farmers who specialized in cross-breeding different varieties of maize to improve yield and drought resistance.
  47. Belén Mortuary Architects: Builders who specialized in the construction of the “pirca” (stone wall) tombs that housed the elite ancestors.
  48. Santa María Ritual Mask Makers: Artisans who used wood, copper, and feathers to create masks representing the ancestral “Weeping Deity.”
  49. Tilcara Stone Tool Sharpeners: A specialized service class that maintained the thousands of stone hoes and axes required by the city’s farmers.
  50. Late Huarpe Reed Boat Navigators: Experts who managed the transport of goods across the vast lagoon systems of central Argentina.
  51. Atacama Turquoise Jewelry Polishers: Workers who used fine sand and water to give the blue stone its characteristic high-gloss finish.
  52. Rio Negro River Pilots: Individuals who knew every rapid and sandbar of the southern rivers, facilitating the movement of timber and hides.
  53. Early Mapuche Forest Stewards: Clans responsible for the ritual protection and sustainable harvest of the sacred Alerce forests.
  54. Southern Cone Regional Historians: The modern researchers and indigenous leaders who work to document the 100 monumental sites of this era of Fortified Chiefdoms.

The Imperial Frontier and Indigenous Resistance

Encountering the Inca and Early European Contact

c. 1450 CE – 1550 CE

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

The expansion of the Inca Empire into the southern territories forced a dramatic reorganization of many existing cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. While some groups in the north were integrated into the imperial structure, many others fiercely resisted the invasion, maintaining their autonomy and traditional lifestyles through the strength of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

The introduction of new administrative techniques and the expansion of the road system left a lasting mark on the landscape, yet the core identities of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone remained resilient. This brief but intense period of imperial interaction served as a precursor to the even more disruptive arrival of European forces that would soon challenge the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

  1. Cuzco Imperial Architects: These elite planners were sent from the capital to oversee the construction of standardized stone administrative centers throughout the northern valleys.
  2. Qhapaq Ñan Road Builders: Labor teams who constructed thousands of kilometers of paved roads and suspension bridges to connect the southern provinces to the heart of the empire.
  3. Capacocha Priests: Specialized ritualists who managed the high-altitude sacrificial ceremonies on the peaks of the Andes to ensure the spiritual health of the state.
  4. Mit’a Labor Collectives: Organized groups of local villagers who were required to provide seasonal labor for state projects, such as mining and the building of tambos.
  5. Chaski Messenger Runners: Elite athletes who lived in small stations along the Inca road, specialized in the rapid transmission of verbal messages and quipu records.
  6. Quipucamayoc Bureaucrats: Imperial accountants who used the quipu (knotted string system) to record the tribute, population data, and resource stocks of the southern provinces.
  7. Huaca Guardians: Local priests who were incorporated into the Inca religious hierarchy to continue the worship of sacred landmarks under state supervision.
  8. Colca Storage Managers: Officials responsible for the maintenance of the state’s massive grain silos, ensuring food security for the imperial armies during campaigns.
  9. Aclla Textile Weavers: Specialized groups of “Chosen Women” who lived in state compounds and produced the finest “cumbi” cloth for the Inca nobility.
  10. Pucará de Andagala Garrison: A permanent military unit stationed in the Catamarca region to monitor the local Belén and Santa María populations.
  11. Potrero de Payogasta Administrators: Local elites who cooperated with the Inca, managing a major regional center that produced both ceramics and textiles for the state.
  12. Chilecito Mining Specialists: Groups that were reorganized by the Inca to intensify the extraction of copper and gold from the Famatina mines.
  13. Mitimaes Resettlers: Entire ethnic groups that were forcibly moved by the Inca to the Southern Cone to work the land and act as loyalist buffers against rebellion.
  14. Pukará de Tilcara Inca Governors: Imperial officials who occupied the largest fortified cities of the Humahuaca, turning them into regional administrative capitals.
  15. Catarpe Oasis Managers: Inca representatives who oversaw the transformation of the Atacama oases into major state-run agricultural and caravan hubs.
  16. Maule River Frontier Guards: Military units stationed at the southernmost edge of the empire to defend against the raids of the independent Mapuche groups.
  17. Uspallata Pass Travelers: Imperial caravans that utilized the high mountain passes to move goods between the central Chilean valleys and the Argentine Cuyo.
  18. Punta de Teatinos State Fishers: Coastal groups whose labor was reorganized by the Inca to provide dried seafood for the inland administrative centers.
  19. Aconcagua Inca Artisans: Local potters who adopted the “Inca-Paya” style, blending their traditional fish motifs with imperial geometric designs.
  20. Huarpe Canal Mit’ayos: Laborers who were conscripted to expand the Mendoza irrigation system to support the state’s massive maize plantations.
  21. Puna Salt Caravanners: Llama drivers whose traditional trade routes were integrated into the state economy to supply salt to the imperial troops.
  22. Copiapó Valley Metallurgists: Specialized smiths who produced standardized bronze tools and ornaments under the direction of imperial overseers.
  23. Llullaillaco High-Altitude Porters: Specialized teams who carried ritual offerings and supplies to the world’s highest archaeological sites.
  24. Shenu Forest Scouts: Native groups recruited by the Inca to identify rare timber and medicinal plants in the southern temperate rainforests.
  25. Guaraní Frontier Defenders: Independent groups who successfully resisted Inca encroachment in the eastern lowlands through guerrilla warfare.
  26. Tambo de Ranchillos Managers: Officials who oversaw a major logistical hub in Mendoza, providing shelter and supplies to travelers on the Qhapaq Ñan.
  27. Inca-Cueva Rock Art Successors: Local artists who added imperial symbols, such as the “tunic” motif, to the ancient rock art panels of the highlands.
  28. Diaguita Bronze Founders (Inca Phase): Artisans who were ordered to produce “tumis” (ceremonial knives) and other standardized imperial weaponry.
  29. Atacama Stone Masons: Workers who learned the Inca “fitted-stone” technique to build the monumental state buildings in San Pedro.
  30. Rio Salado Shell Traders (State Licensed): Coastal groups who provided sea shells to the Inca for use in state-sanctioned ritual offerings.
  31. Inca Bridge Technicians: Specialized workers who maintained the braided-fiber bridges (q’eswachaka style) across the deep canyons of the south.
  32. Collao Migrants: Highland groups from the Lake Titicaca region who were moved to the southern valleys to introduce advanced potato farming techniques.
  33. Tambo de la Cumbre Watchmen: Sentries who lived at the highest point of the trans-Andean road, monitoring movement between the two sides of the range.
  34. Picunche State Farmers: Central Chilean groups who cultivated massive fields of quinoa and beans for the Inca state granaries.
  35. Inca Astronomy Observers (Saywas): Priests who maintained the stone pillars used to mark the solstices and equinoxes at the edge of the empire.
  36. Ocloya Forest Intermediaries: Ethnic groups who provided the Inca with “cebil” and other tropical products from the eastern jungle fringe.
  37. Atacama Llama Breeders (State Flocks): Herders who managed thousands of animals belonging to the Sun God and the Sapa Inca.
  38. Mendoza Valley Vineyard Forerunners (State Orchards): The imperial farms that established the large-scale organized planting of native fruits.
  39. Inca Gold Mine Managers: Officials who oversaw the extraction of the “Sweat of the Sun” from the remote mountain mines of the Atacama.
  40. Mapuche War Councils: Independent leaders who coordinated the defense of their territory against the Inca “Llacuaces” (highlanders).
  41. Quilmes Imperial Tributaries: The powerful Santa María lordship that was forced to pay tribute in high-quality textiles and copper to the state.
  42. Inca Road Paviors: Workers who spent years laying stone slabs to ensure the Qhapaq Ñan remained passable in all weather conditions.
  43. Rio Negro Woodworkers (Inca Reorganized): Riverine groups who provided timber for the construction of state buildings in the northern Patagonian fringe.
  44. Inca-Paya Ceramic Painters: Artists who specialized in the creation of hybrid vessels for use in imperial banquet ceremonies.
  45. Pampa Central Lithic Suppliers (State Monitored): Groups that continued to provide stone tools but under the indirect control of imperial trade officials.
  46. Inca Military Strategists (Southern Front): Generals who designed the campaigns to secure the southern valleys and neutralize local rebellions.
  1. Tambo de Jáchal Managers: Officials who coordinated the collection of camelid wool from the surrounding mountain groups for state use.
  2. Inca Silver Smelters: Specialists who operated the state-run “huayras” (wind furnaces) to produce silver for the imperial treasury.
  3. Araucanian Resistance Fighters: Forest warriors who utilized the dense terrain to ambush Inca patrols and prevent the conquest of southern Chile.
  4. Inca State Musicians: Performers who played the “panpipes” and “drums” during official ceremonies to celebrate the glory of the Sapa Inca.
  5. Tambo de Tilcara Innkeepers: Staff who provided food and lodging for the chaskis and high-ranking officials traveling the royal road.
  6. Inca Terrace Overseers (Maize Specialists): Agricultural experts who introduced tropical maize varieties to the southern mountain valleys.
  7. Atacama Salt Flat State Laborers: Conscripted workers who produced salt specifically for the imperial army’s rations.
  8. Inca Ritual Offering Experts: Individuals who prepared the “chicha” (maize beer) and “coca” bundles for the empire’s daily sacrifices.
  9. Rio Salado Delta Buffer Groups: Communities that lived on the edge of the empire, trading with the Inca while maintaining their independence.
  10. Inca Road Signalers: Specialized workers who used smoke and mirrors to send alerts along the mountain ridges of the Southern Cone.
  11. Inca-Style Basketry Weavers: Artisans who adopted the tighter, more standardized weave patterns favored by the imperial administration.
  12. Atacama Turquoise Jewelry Designers (Imperial Style): Craftsmen who created lapis and turquoise inlays for the earspools of Inca-appointed governors.
  13. Inca Irrigation Canal Diversionists: Engineers who redirected local streams to provide water specifically for the Sapa Inca’s private estates.
  14. Inca State Heraldry Specialists: Officials who ensured that the correct emblems and colors of the emperor were displayed on all public buildings.
  15. Inca Llama Caravan Escorts: Armed soldiers who protected the “Sun’s Wealth” as it was transported through hostile territories.
  16. Tambo de Salta Logistics Teams: Workers who managed the distribution of supplies for the Inca armies heading into the Chaco.
  17. Inca Featherwork Master Artists: Artisans who created the elaborate headdresses and tunics worn by the southern provincial governors.
  18. Inca Boundary Stone Setters: Officials who marked the limits of different “Sayas” (administrative sectors) within the southern provinces.
  19. Inca Public Ritual Dancers: Groups that were trained in the capital and sent to the south to perform the state-sanctioned dances of the Sun.
  20. Atacama Desert Water Explorers: Specialists who searched for new aquifers to support the growth of imperial administrative centers.
  21. Inca Wool Grading Officials: Bureaucrats who inspected the quality of llama and alpaca wool before it was sent to the state weavers.
  22. Inca Bronze Spearhead Casters: Smiths who produced thousands of standardized weapon tips for the southern frontier garrisons.
  23. Inca Quipu Record Keepers (Census): Officials who tracked the birth and death rates of the southern populations for labor planning.
  24. Inca High-Altitude Shrine Maintenance Teams: Workers who lived at extreme altitudes to clear snow and repair the Capacocha sites.
  25. Inca State Pottery Inspectors: Officials who ensured that all ceramics produced in state workshops met the imperial quality standards.
  26. Inca Road Drainage Engineers: Specialists who built stone culverts to prevent the Qhapaq Ñan from washing away during mountain storms.
  27. Inca Maize Beer (Chicha) Producers: Large-scale operations that provided the ritual drink for state-sponsored festivals.
  28. Inca Sun Temple Attendants: Priests and staff who managed the daily operations of the “Coricancha” satellites in the southern valleys.
  29. Inca State Funeral Directors: Officials who coordinated the elaborate burials of high-ranking imperial administrators in the south.
  30. Atacama Mining Tunnel Shorer: Workers who specialized in the dangerous task of supporting the walls of the imperial deep-shaft mines.
  31. Inca Stone Carving Instructors: Artisans who taught the local populations how to work stone in the “Imperial Cuzco” style.
  32. Inca State Oracle Interpreters: Priests who consulted the sacred “huacas” to determine the best time for imperial military campaigns.
  33. Inca Llama Meat Drying Collectives: Workers who produced “charqui” (jerky) on a massive scale to feed the state’s mobile labor force.
  34. Inca Road Bridge Toll Collectors: Officials who monitored the movement of people and goods across the empire’s strategic bridges.
  35. Inca State Herb Gardeners: Specialists who cultivated medicinal and ritual plants for the use of the imperial elite in the southern provinces.
  36. Inca Stone Mortar Manufacturers: Artisans who produced standardized grinding stones for use in the state’s collective kitchens.
  37. Inca State Textile Dye Producers: Workers who collected the “cochineal” insect to produce the deep red dyes for elite imperial clothing.
  38. Inca Imperial Seal Carvers: Artisans who created the unique stamps used by officials to mark state property and quipu records.
  39. Inca High-Pass Shelter Builders: Workers who constructed the “chaskiwasi” (small huts) at the most dangerous points of the Andean crossings.
  40. Inca State Irrigation Sluice Operators: Officials who controlled the flow of water to different community fields based on state mandates.
  41. Inca Copper Slab Traders: Merchants who moved raw metal from the southern mines to the central smelting centers of the empire.
  42. Inca State Loom Designers: Engineers who developed larger and more efficient looms for the state’s textile factories.
  43. Inca Public Works Timekeepers: Officials who used sun-shadows to coordinate the start and end of the mit’a labor shifts.
  44. Inca State Historians (Oral): Specialists who were tasked with teaching the local southern groups the “official” version of Inca history.
  45. Inca Ritual Runner Trainers: Coaches who selected and trained the chaskis for the grueling southern sections of the road.
  46. Inca State Pottery Kiln Builders: Specialists who constructed the high-temperature kilns required for imperial ceramic production.
  47. Inca State Salt Distribution Managers: Bureaucrats who oversaw the rationing of salt to the various southern provinces.
  48. Inca High-Altitude Offering Carriers: Porters who were ritually purified before carrying sacred items to the mountain peaks.
  49. Inca State Woodcarving Instructors: Artisans who introduced imperial styles for the decoration of doorways and furniture in the south.
  50. Inca State Metal Refiners: Specialists who used chemical processes to separate silver and gold from complex southern ores.
  51. Inca State Textile Pattern Designers: Artists who created the “tocapu” (square geometric symbols) that denoted imperial rank.
  52. Inca State Animal Sacrificers: Priests who specialized in the ritual offering of white llamas to ensure the favor of the Sun God.
  53. Inca Imperial Palace Staff (Southern): Domestic workers who maintained the regional residences used by the Sapa Inca during his tours.
  54. Southern Cone Imperial Scholars: The modern researchers and cultural experts who preserve the legacy of the 100 monumental sites of the Inca era.

Colonial Transition and Modern Resilience

Persistence and Cultural Revitalization

c. 1550 CE – PRESENT

Table of Contents: Cultures and Civilizations of the Southern Cone

The arrival of Spanish explorers and settlers initiated a period of extreme hardship and rapid change, yet it also highlighted the incredible endurance and adaptability of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. Despite the pressures of missionization and land dispossession, many groups successfully maintained their languages and spiritual beliefs, ensuring the continuity of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

In the modern era, a powerful movement for land rights and cultural recognition has emerged among the descendants of the original cultures and civilizations of the southern cone. Today, these societies continue to play a vital role in the environmental and political landscape of South America, celebrating the enduring legacy of the cultures and civilizations of the southern cone.

  1. Mapuche Toki Leaders: Military commanders chosen by the confederation of forest clans to lead the defense against Spanish expansion in south-central Chile.
  2. Tehuelche Horse Masters: Patagonian groups who became legendary for their equestrian skills, utilizing the horse to hunt guanaco across vast distances with greater efficiency.
  3. Guaraní Mission Artisans: Skilled workers within the Jesuit Reductions who blended indigenous woodcarving techniques with European Baroque styles to create unique religious art.
  4. Charrúa Resistance Fighters: Fiercely independent groups in modern Uruguay who utilized their knowledge of the grasslands to conduct long-term guerrilla warfare against colonial settlements.
  5. Selk’nam Ritual Guardians: Families in Tierra del Fuego who continued the sacred Hain ceremonies despite the encroachment of sheep ranchers and missionaries.
  6. Pehuenche Trade Negotiators: Mountain groups who controlled the Andean passes, facilitating a massive trans-continental trade of cattle and salt between the Pampa and Chile.
  7. Huarpe Oasis Survivors: Indigenous groups in Mendoza who maintained their traditional irrigation knowledge while working within the colonial agricultural system.
  8. Diaguita Rebellion Leaders: Tribal chiefs who organized the Great Calchaquí Wars, a series of massive uprisings that successfully delayed Spanish control of the northern valleys for a century.
  9. Yaghan Maritime Guides: The “Canoe People” of the far south who navigated the treacherous fjords, often assisting early European scientific expeditions through their ancestral waters.
  10. Querandí Grassland Warriors: The original inhabitants of the Buenos Aires region who famously defeated the first Spanish attempt to settle the Rio de la Plata.
  11. Mapuche Silver Smiths (Retrafe): Artisans who specialized in creating the Akucha (silver pins) and Trapelacucha (breastplates) that became symbols of resistance and feminine power.
  12. Calchaquí Siege Engineers: Indigenous warriors who adapted their traditional Pukaras to withstand Spanish artillery and utilized “scorched earth” tactics during colonial campaigns.
  13. Kawéskar Sea Nomads: Maritime groups of the Chilean fjords who maintained their nomadic lifestyle in bark canoes well into the 20th century.
  14. Mocoví Forest Raiders: Chaco groups who became formidable horsemen, launching long-distance raids to protect their territory from colonial expansion.
  15. Atacameño Llama Drivers: Caravaneers who continued to move salt and minerals across the desert, integrating European pack animals alongside their traditional llamas.
  16. Chané Woodcarving Masters: Groups in the northern foothills who preserved the tradition of making “Arete Guazú” masks for use in seasonal festivals.
  17. Minuano Cavalry Units: Specialized grassland groups who developed the use of the lance and the bola from horseback to counter Spanish infantry.
  18. Guaycurú Tribal Diplomats: Leaders in the Chaco region who navigated complex political alliances between Spanish, Portuguese, and other indigenous groups.
  19. Mapuche Textile Masters (Duanche): Women who continued to weave the sacred “Makuñ” (poncho), using patterns that encoded the wearer’s lineage and social rank.
  20. Ona (Selk’nam) Bow Makers: Specialized artisans who maintained the ancient skill of crafting high-tension bows from local hardwoods even after the introduction of firearms.
  21. Ranquel Confederation Chiefs: A powerful alliance of Mapuche-Tehuelche groups in the central Pampa who established a sovereign “state within a state” for decades.
  22. Coya Highland Farmers: Descendants of the Inca-influenced groups who maintained traditional terrace farming and camelid herding in the high Puna.
  23. Puelche Desert Guides: Mobile groups who possessed intimate knowledge of the hidden water sources and routes across the arid northern Patagonia.
  24. Mbyá Guaraní Spiritual Elders: Leaders who preserved the “Language of the Soul” and the search for the “Land Without Evil” in the face of colonial displacement.
  25. Wichí Fiber Weavers: Artisans in the Chaco who continued to use the “chaguar” plant to create durable bags and textiles featuring ancient forest motifs.
  26. Vilela Honey Harvesters: Groups that maintained their ancestral rights to forest resources, continuing the ritual harvest of wild honey throughout the colonial period.
  27. Moluche Mountain Clans: Warriors who specialized in defending the high-altitude passes of the southern Andes against colonial patrols.
  28. Abipón “People of the Arrows”: A Chaco group that transitioned into a powerful equestrian society, known for their elaborate tattooing and fierce independence.
  29. Aymara Trade Merchants: Southern branches of the Aymara who maintained the trans-Andean caravan routes connecting the Atacama to the Potosí silver mines.
  30. Tehuelche Painted Robe Artists: Women who preserved the tradition of “quillangos,” decorating skin robes with intricate geometric maps of the spirit world.
  31. Lule-Vilela Language Preservers: Elders who maintained their unique linguistic heritage in isolated forest communities during the mission era.
  32. Mapuche Lonko Councils: Local community leaders who managed the internal laws and social welfare of the “Reducciones” after the military conquest of the desert.
  33. Chango Coastal Survivors: Small groups of maritime specialists who continued to use sea-lion skin rafts for fishing into the early 20th century.
  34. Pilagá Forest Foragers: Chaco groups who successfully defended their traditional hunting grounds through the use of the dense scrubland as a defensive barrier.
  35. Toba (Qom) Tribal Warriors: Fierce defenders of the eastern Chaco who adapted the use of the horse and the shotgun to maintain their sovereignty for centuries.
  36. Huilliche Forest Farmers: The “people of the south” in Chile who maintained their ancestral lands and timber-rights through complex legal battles with the Spanish crown.
  37. Manzanero Apple Orchard Managers: Mapuche-Tehuelche groups in the Neuquén region who cultivated massive wild apple groves introduced by early travelers.
  38. Ava Guaraní Mask Makers: Artisans who created the white-wood masks used in the “Pim Pim” dance, celebrating the resilience of the forest culture.
  39. Picunche Irrigation Successors: Central Chilean groups who integrated Spanish crops like wheat and grapes into their ancient canal-fed terrace systems.
  40. Tehuelche Grave Guardians: Families who maintained the sacred “Chenques” (stone burial mounds) in remote Patagonia to protect their ancestors from grave robbers.
  41. Mapuche Law Keepers (Admapu): Specialists in the unwritten code of ethics and law that governed Mapuche society and their relationship with the environment.
  42. Charrúa “Last Warriors”: Small bands who maintained the traditional nomadic life in the interior of Uruguay until the mid-19th century.
  43. Selk’nam Body Painters: Artists who used red, white, and black clays to create the iconic striped and dotted patterns of the Kloketen initiation rites.
  44. Atacameño Terrace Restorers: Modern indigenous communities in northern Chile who are rebuilding ancient Inca-era terraces to support sustainable agriculture.
  45. Wichí Woodcarvers: Modern artisans who use the dark heartwood of the “palo santo” tree to carve representations of the animals of the Chaco forest.
  46. Mapuche Wheat Farmers: Groups that became major exporters of grain to the Spanish colonies, using their agricultural surplus to fund their military resistance.
  47. Mbyá Guaraní Seed Guardians: Families who preserve ancient varieties of “sacred maize” that are central to their religious and nutritional life.
  1. Tehuelche Oral Poets: Storytellers who preserved the epic myths of “Elal,” the creator hero who protected the people from the giants of Patagonia.
  2. Yaghan Basketry Weavers: Modern descendants who continue to use the ancient “half-hitch” technique to create grass baskets for the artisan market.
  3. Kawéskar Navigation Experts: Sailors who have mapped the complex currents of the southern fjords through generations of oral maritime history.
  4. Toba (Qom) Loom Weavers: Women who use wool and plant fibers to create the “faja” (belt) which identifies the wearer’s clan and status.
  5. Mapuche Medicinal Herbalists (Machi): Spiritual leaders and healers who maintain a vast knowledge of forest pharmacology and ritual balance.
  6. Diaguita Ceramic Revitalizers: Modern artisans in the northern valleys who are rediscovering the ancient techniques of the Santa María and Belén potters.
  7. Ava Guaraní Corn Beer Brewers: Women who manage the fermentation of “Kagüi” for use in communal celebrations of group identity.
  8. Tehuelche “Boleadora” Makers: Specialists who continued to shape and polish the stone weights for the hunting tool that remained superior to the lasso.
  9. Mapuche Defensive Wall Builders: Architects who constructed “Malales” (fortified wooden corrals) to protect livestock during the colonial frontier wars.
  10. Atacameño Salt Miners: Communities that still hold the ancestral rights to the salt-pans of the high Puna, harvesting the mineral in traditional blocks.
  11. Wichí Honey Hunters: Specialists who use smoke and ancestral knowledge to locate wild bee nests in the highest branches of the Chaco forest.
  12. Mapuche Pipe Players (Trutruka): Musicians who craft and play the long ceremonial horns used to call communities together for the Nguillatun ritual.
  13. Kawéskar Sea Otter Hunters: Specialized maritime groups who maintained a sustainable relationship with marine mammals for fur and food.
  14. Toba (Qom) Drum Makers: Artisans who create the “Pimpim” drum, a water-tuned instrument used to provide the heartbeat for forest dances.
  15. Mbyá Guaraní Temple Builders (Opy): Specialized builders of the traditional thatched prayer houses where the community gathers for ritual chanting.
  16. Mapuche Horse Saddlers: Craftsmen who developed unique leather and wood saddles suited for the dense forests and steep mountains of the south.
  17. Tehuelche Leather Tanners: Experts who used guanaco brains and local roots to produce the incredibly soft “quillango” robes.
  18. Atacameño Water Canal Cleaners: Modern communities that gather annually for the “Cleaning of the Ditches,” a ritualized communal labor event.
  19. Yaghan Bone Harpoon Specialists: The last generation of hunters who used whale and sea-lion bone to create the tools of the southern maritime tradition.
  20. Mapuche Orators (Werken): Specialized messengers and diplomats who were trained in the art of persuasive speech to represent their clans.
  21. Diaguita Bronze Founders (Colonial Phase): Artisans who learned to work iron and steel while maintaining the symbolic designs of their copper-working ancestors.
  22. Ava Guaraní Flute Players: Musicians who maintain the repertoire of ancient melodies played on cane flutes during the carnival season.
  23. Wichí Mask Carvers: Modern artists who create masks representing the “Lord of the Forest” for use in environmental awareness ceremonies.
  24. Mapuche Flag Makers: Families responsible for the creation of the “Mwen” (ritual flags) used to mark the sacred space of the Nguillatun.
  25. Tehuelche Star Navigators: Elders who maintained the knowledge of using the Southern Cross and the Milky Way to travel the Pampa at night.
  26. Atacameño Seed Bankers: Women who protect the genetic diversity of drought-resistant quinoa varieties in the San Pedro oases.
  27. Kawéskar Bark Canoe Restorers: Cultural activists who are documenting the complex construction of the traditional southern vessels.
  28. Toba (Qom) Clay Sculptors: Modern artists who use river clay to model the wildlife of the Chaco, preserving the visual memory of the ecosystem.
  29. Mapuche Boundary Stone Setters: Clan leaders who maintain the “Cuimel” (ceremonial markers) that define the traditional limits of ancestral lands.
  30. Mbyá Guaraní Pathfinders: Individuals who maintain the secret trails through the subtropical rainforest that link isolated communities.
  31. Wichí Language Teachers: Educators who are developing the first written dictionaries and curricula for the Wichí Lhamtés language.
  32. Tehuelche Story Keepers: Specialized family members who hold the genealogy of the great “Caciques” like Sayhueque and Casimiro Biguá.
  33. Mapuche Loom Designers (Modern): Weavers who are integrating 21st-century themes into the traditional “Ñimin” (woven designs).
  34. Atacameño High-Altitude Herders: Families who still maintain the seasonal movement of llamas to the “bofedales” (wetlands) of the high Andes.
  35. Kawéskar Shellfish Collectors: Coastal groups who continue to manage the traditional “marisquería” grounds using sustainable ancient methods.
  36. Toba (Qom) Community Organizers: Leaders who are reclaiming ancestral territories in the Formosa and Chaco provinces of Argentina.
  37. Diaguita Weaving Collectives: Groups of women in the Catamarca valleys who are reviving the use of natural dyes like cochineal and walnut.
  38. Mapuche Ritual Sacrifice Experts: Elders who perform the traditional offering of animal blood to the earth (Pachamama) and the spirits of the ancestors.
  39. Ava Guaraní Historians: Scholars within the community who document the history of the “Great Migration” and the resistance against the encomiendas.
  40. Wichí Net Weavers: Modern craftsmen who produce “Yanduba” (fishing nets) using the same knotting techniques found in 2,000-year-old archaeological sites.
  41. Tehuelche Painted Hide Experts: Artists who are teaching the next generation the chemical secrets of traditional mineral pigments.
  42. Mapuche Forest Firefighters: Indigenous brigades that use traditional forest management knowledge to protect the sacred Araucaria groves.
  43. Atacameño Solar Observers: Modern priests who still use the shadow of the Licancabur volcano to time the community’s ritual offerings.
  44. Yaghan Cultural Researchers: Descendants who are working with linguists to document the final speakers of the world’s southernmost language.
  45. Kawéskar Sea-Bird Guardians: Families who maintain the traditional prohibition against hunting nesting birds during certain moon cycles.
  46. Toba (Qom) Medicinal Plant Experts: Healers who are documenting the use of forest “monte” medicine for modern clinical applications.
  47. Mbyá Guaraní Woodcarving Teachers: Master carvers who are ensuring that the symbolism of the “jaguar” and the “bird” remains in native art.
  48. Mapuche Radio Broadcasters: Activists who use modern technology to broadcast in Mapudungun, keeping the language alive in urban centers.
  49. Diaguita Pukara Guardians: Local communities that act as the primary protectors and interpreters of the ancient fortified cities of the north.
  50. Wichí Pottery Masters: Women who continue to fire their ceramics in open pits, using the smoke to create the traditional “blackened” finish.
  51. Tehuelche Land Rights Lawyers: Indigenous professionals who use both national law and ancestral treaties to defend Patagonian territories.
  52. Mapuche University Scholars: Intellectuals who are decolonizing the history of the Southern Cone by writing from an indigenous perspective.
  53. Southern Cone Heritage Future Guardians: The children of all indigenous nations of the region who carry the 10,000-year legacy into the future.

Sources and Citations

Early Foragers and Maritime Adaptations

Adovasio, James M., and David Pedler. The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2016.

Arriaza, Bernardo. Beyond Death: The Chinchorro Mummies of Ancient Chile. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.

Borrero, Luis Alberto. The Peopling of Patagonia: Evolution and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021.

Dillehay, Tom D. Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989.

Miotti, Laura, and Mónica Salemme. Poblamiento, movilidad y asentamiento en el Macizo del Deseado. Buenos Aires: Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 2004.

Sandweiss, Daniel H. The Maritime Foundations of Andean Civilization. South Bend: University of Notre Dame Press, 1992.

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Cueva de las Manos, Río Pinturas. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

The Rise of Sedentism and Ceramic Traditions

Berberián, Eduardo E., and Axel E. Nielsen. Historia de la Argentina prehispánica. Córdoba: Editorial Brujas, 2001.

Falabella, Fernanda, et al. Culturas del Chile Central: El Periodo Alfarero Temprano. Santiago: Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, 2016.

González, Alberto Rex. Arte, estructura y arqueología: Análisis de figuras antropomorfas de la cultura Condorhuasi. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Nueva Visión, 1974.

Llagostera, Agustín. Los Antiguos Habitantes del Salar de Atacama: Prehistoria Atacameña. Antofagasta: Universidad Católica del Norte, 2004.

Lothrop, Samuel K. Archaeology of the Paraná River. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1932.

Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino. Traditional Ceramics and Textiles of the Southern Cone. Santiago: Ministry of Cultures, Arts and Heritage.

Politis, Gustavo G. Arqueologia de la Pampa Argentina. Alicante: Universidad de Alicante, 2008.

Artistic Mastery and Social Complexity

Gordillo, Inés, and José Pérez Gollán. La Aguada: Cultura, Estado y Sociedad. Buenos Aires: Museo Etnográfico Juan B. Ambrosetti, 2006.

Lumbreras, Luis Guillermo. The Peoples and Cultures of Ancient Peru (Southern Extent Sections). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1974.

Niemeyer, Hans, and Virgilio Schiappacasse. El Periodo Medio en el Norte Chico. Santiago: Universidad de Chile, 1998.

Pérez Gollán, José Antonio. El proceso de integración en el Valle de Ambato: La Cultura Aguada. San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca: Universidad Nacional de Catamarca, 1991.

Tarragó, Myriam. Chacras y Pukaras: Desarrollos sociales tardíos. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 2000.

Uribe, Mauricio, and Leonor Adán. Arqueología de los periodos Intermedio Tardío y Tardío de Chile septentrional. Santiago: Sociedad Chilena de Arqueología, 2003.

Urbanism and Regional Conflict

Albeck, Maria Ester. La Puna de Jujuy y los desarrollos regionales. Jujuy: Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, 2001.

Ambrosetti, Juan B. El Pucará de Tilcara. Buenos Aires: Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, 1908 (Archive Reprint).

Nielsen, Axel E. Pukaras y arquitectura defensiva en la Quebrada de Humahuaca. Buenos Aires: Instituto Interdisciplinario Tilcara, 2007.

Raffino, Rodolfo. Poblaciones indígenas en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Editorial Tipográfica Editora Argentina, 1983.

Sánchez, Rodrigo, and Donald Jackson. El Periodo Intermedio Tardío en el Chile Central. Santiago: LOM Ediciones, 2010.

Williams, Verónica, and Terence D’Altroy. The Southern Andean Frontier: The Inca Conquest. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.

The Southern Frontier of the Sun

D’Altroy, Terence. The Incas. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2002.

Hyslop, John. The Inka Road System. Orlando: Academic Press, 1984.

Raffino, Rodolfo. Inka: Arqueología, historia y urbanismo del altiplano andino. Buenos Aires: Editorial Corregidor, 1993.

Schobinger, Juan. The Mountain Mummies: Inca Rituals on the Highest Peaks. Mendoza: Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, 2001.

Stehberg, Rubén. La fortaleza de Chena y su relación con la ocupación incaica de Chile Central. Santiago: Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, 1976.

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Qhapaq Ñan, Andean Road System (Southern Sections). Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Resistance, Adaptation, and Continuity

Bengoa, José. Historia del pueblo mapuche. Santiago: Ediciones Sur, 1985.

Boccara, Guillaume. Los Vencedores: Historia del pueblo mapuche en la época colonial. Santiago: IIAM, 1999.

Bridges, Lucas. Uttermost Part of the Earth: Indians of Tierra del Fuego. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1948 (Historical Source).

Lenton, Diana. De redenciones y desapariciones: Crítica de la narrativa oficial sobre los pueblos indígenas. Buenos Aires: Universidad de Buenos Aires, 2005.

Mandrini, Raúl. La Argentina aborigen: De los primeros pobladores a 1910. Buenos Aires: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 2008.

Manrique, Nelson. La población indígena en la historia del Cono Sur. Lima: CLACSO, 2006.

Painecura, Celestino. Platería Mapuche: El arte del retrafe. Santiago: Editorial Pehuén, 2011.

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