SOUTH AMERICAN CIVILIZATIONS
3500 BCE – PRESENT
Northern Andes: Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and surrounding areas.
Focus: Chiefdoms, sophisticated metallurgy (Quimbaya, Muisca, Tairona), and high-altitude valleys.
Central Andes (The Core): Peru and Bolivia and surrounding areas.
Focus: High-state complexity, monumental architecture, intensive agriculture (Inca, Moche, Tiwanaku).
Circum-Caribbean: Coastal Venezuela, Colombia, Panama and Caribbean.
Focus: Cultures linked by trade and influence to the Caribbean and Mesoamerica.
Amazonia: The entire Amazon Basin (Brazil, parts of Peru, Colombia, etc.).
Focus: Riverine cultures, complex horticulture, and low population density states (Marajóara).
Southern Cone: Central and Southern Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.
Focus: Nomadic hunter-gatherers and fierce resistance to imperial expansion (Mapuche, Tehuelche).
Ancient South American Civilizations created Nazca Lines. For example, these massive geoglyphs depict animals and geometric shapes in the desert.
The Inca kept all administrative records using the quipu, a system of knotted strings. Consequently, its complex code remains largely undeciphered by modern scholars.
| The city of Caral-Supe (c. 3500 BCE) in Peru is the oldest known urban center in the Americas. Furthermore, it developed without the use of pottery. |
Overview
The ancient history of this continent is dominated by the monumental achievements of the Andean cultures. Furthermore, the development of South American Civilizations was largely isolated from the Old World. Their societies independently developed complex agriculture and massive architectural projects. Conversely, they lacked the wheeled vehicle, writing, and advanced metallurgy common elsewhere. Their history is a unique study of adaptation. Consequently, they transformed extreme coastal deserts and high mountains into productive centers of empire.
- Inca (Civilization, c. 1200 – 1533 CE) The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, known for its administrative genius, massive road systems, and high-altitude stone architecture like Machu Picchu.
- Caral-Supe (Civilization, c. 3500 – 1800 BCE) The oldest known civilization in the Americas, defined by its massive earthen platform mounds and complex irrigation without the use of ceramics or warfare.
- Chavín (Culture, c. 900 – 200 BCE) A foundational religious and artistic movement in the central Andes, influencing vast regions through its distinctive jaguar and staff-god iconography.
- Moche (Civilization, c. 100 – 700 CE) A sophisticated coastal state famous for its realistic portrait vessels, monumental mud-brick pyramids, and mastery of irrigation and metallurgy.
- Tiwanaku (Civilization, c. 300 – 1000 CE) A powerful high-altitude state centered near Lake Titicaca, known for megalithic stone masonry and the development of sustainable raised-field agriculture.
- Wari (Civilization, c. 600 – 1000 CE) The first expansionist empire of the Andes, which established military and administrative outposts and built the precursor to the Inca road system.
- Chimú (Civilization, c. 900 – 1470 CE) A massive coastal empire with its capital at Chan Chan, the world’s largest adobe city, known for its extensive canal systems and high-status goldwork.
- Muisca (Civilization, c. 600 – 1600 CE) A wealthy confederation of the Colombian highlands that controlled the salt and emerald trade and inspired the legend of El Dorado with its gold rituals.
- Nazca (Culture, c. 100 BCE – 800 CE) A coastal society famous for the Nazca Lines—massive geoglyphs carved into the desert floor—and their vibrant, polychrome ceramic art.
- Paracas (Culture, c. 800 BCE – 100 BCE) An Andean society renowned for its incredibly complex textiles and the practice of cranial deformation and trepanation for ritual and medical purposes.
- San Agustín (Culture, c. 1000 BCE – 1500 CE) A mysterious society in the Colombian massif known for creating hundreds of monumental stone statues and complex funerary mound systems.
- Quimbaya (Society, c. 300 – 1000 CE) A specialized society of the Cauca Valley famous for producing some of the most technically perfect gold and tumbaga castings in the ancient world.
- Tayrona (Civilization, c. 200 – 1600 CE) A mountain-dwelling society that built stone-terraced cities like Ciudad Perdida in the dense rainforests of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
- Valdivia (Culture, c. 3500 – 1500 BCE) One of the earliest ceramic-producing cultures in the Americas, famous for its small limestone and clay female figurines known as “Venus” figures.
- Chachapoya (Civilization, c. 800 – 1470 CE) The “Warriors of the Clouds” who built the massive fortified stone city of Kuélap on high mountain ridges to resist Andean expansion.
- Marajoara (Civilization, c. 400 – 1400 CE) An Amazonian society that built massive earthen mounds and produced highly complex, geometric polychrome pottery in the mouth of the Amazon River.
- Santarém / Tapajós (Civilization, c. 1000 – 1600 CE) A dense Amazonian chiefdom known for its large-scale urban settlements and “cariatide” ceramics featuring complex human and animal figures.
- Aguada (Civilization, c. 600 – 900 CE) A theocratic state in the southern Andes that utilized powerful feline imagery and advanced bronze metallurgy to unify various desert valleys.
- Taino (Civilization, c. 1000 – 1500 CE) A Caribbean maritime society organized into powerful hereditary chiefdoms that utilized the “Conuco” agricultural system and stone-lined ball courts.
- Guaraní (Society, c. 1000 CE – Present) A widespread forest society known for its semi-nomadic lifestyle, deep spiritual connection to the “Land Without Evil,” and resilient linguistic heritage.
- Chinchorro (Culture, c. 7000 – 1500 BCE) A coastal maritime society famous for inventing the world’s oldest tradition of intentional mummification, predating the Egyptians by millennia.
- Calima (Culture, c. 200 BCE – 1000 CE) A sequence of societies in western Colombia known for their elaborate gold ornaments and their contribution to the trans-Andean trade networks.
- Tolita / Tumaco (Culture, c. 600 BCE – 400 CE) A coastal society spanning the Ecuador-Colombia border, celebrated for its realistic ceramic art and the earliest known use of platinum in metallurgy.
- Lambayeque / Sicán (Civilization, c. 750 – 1375 CE) The successors to the Moche on the northern coast, famous for their immense “Tumi” ceremonial knives and vast quantities of burial gold.
- Zenú (Civilization, c. 200 BCE – 1600 CE) An engineering-focused society that transformed thousands of acres of wetlands into productive farmland using a vast system of drainage canals.
- Chincha (Civilization, c. 900 – 1450 CE) A powerful maritime trading kingdom that controlled the Pacific coast commerce and served as elite allies to the Inca Empire.
- Quilmes (Civilization, c. 1000 – 1667 CE) A fiercely independent society of the southern Andes that built high-altitude stone fortresses and resisted colonial conquest for over a century.
- Santa María (Culture, c. 1200 – 1470 CE) An urban-dwelling society of the Calchaquí Valleys known for its standardized symbolic urns and fortified hilltop cities.
- Tastil (Civilization, c. 1000 – 1450 CE) One of the largest pre-Inca urban centers in the southern Andes, featuring a planned grid of stone houses and specialized artisan quarters.
- Chorrera (Culture, c. 1300 – 300 BCE) An influential early Ecuadorian society that perfected “whistling bottles” and thin-walled ceramics that were traded across the continent.
- Machalilla (Culture, c. 1500 – 1100 BCE) A coastal society that introduced the use of stirrup-spout vessels and practiced skull elongation as a marker of social status.
- Recuay (Culture, c. 200 BCE – 600 CE) A highland society known for its stone masonry and distinct ceramics depicting complex scenes of ritual, war, and elite life.
- Lima Culture (Civilization, c. 100 – 650 CE) A coastal society that built massive adobe pyramids (Huacas) in the modern-day Lima region, utilizing a unique “bookcase” construction style.
- Cajamarca (Culture, c. 200 – 1470 CE) A resilient highland society known for its fine kaolin-clay ceramics and its strategic position as a trade hub between the coast and the jungle.
- Tierradentro (Culture, c. 600 – 900 CE) A Colombian society famous for its deep, subterranean tomb chambers (hypogea) decorated with complex geometric red and black murals.
- Pucará (Culture, c. 400 BCE – 100 CE) An early Lake Titicaca society that pioneered the stonework and religious traditions that would later be expanded by the Tiwanaku.
- Atacameño (Society, c. 500 BCE – 1500 CE) A desert-dwelling society that mastered oasis farming and caravan trade, serving as the primary link between the Pacific and the highlands.
- Diaguitas (Society, c. 800 – 1500 CE) A group of independent chiefdoms in the southern Andes known for their beautiful geometric ceramics and effective resistance to imperial expansion.
- Mapuche (Society, c. 500 BCE – Present) A forest and grassland society of the south known for their complex silverwork and their historic success in maintaining independence through warfare.
- Tehuelche (Society, c. 1000 CE – Present) A nomadic Patagonian society that adapted to the harsh southern plains, developing a rich oral mythology and later an elite equestrian culture.
- Selk’nam (Society, c. 1000 BCE – 20th Century) A maritime and terrestrial society of Tierra del Fuego famous for the Hain ritual and their resilience in the world’s southernmost environment.
- Kalinago (Society, c. 1200 – 1600 CE) A fierce Caribbean maritime group known for their seafaring military prowess and their resistance to early colonial encroachment.
- Charrúa (Society, c. 1000 CE – 1831 CE) A grassland society of modern-day Uruguay known for their prowess with the bola and their fierce independence as nomadic hunters.
- Manteño-Huancavilca (Civilization, c. 800 – 1530 CE) The last of the great Ecuadorian coastal civilizations, famous for their high-status “U” shaped stone seats and large-scale maritime trade.
- Belén (Culture, c. 1000 – 1450 CE) A southern Andean society that specialized in fortified settlements and developed a unique style of bronze metallurgy.
- Ciénaga (Culture, c. 1 – 600 CE) A foundational southern Andean society that established the early patterns of village life and camelid herding in the desert valleys.
- Condorhuasi (Culture, c. 400 BCE – 700 CE) An early artistic society known for its “Suplicante” stone sculptures—some of the most abstract and modern-looking pieces of ancient art.
- Guangala (Culture, c. 500 BCE – 500 CE) A coastal Ecuadorian society that specialized in the production of copper tools and fine pottery used in trade with the northern Andes.
- Chiripa (Culture, c. 1500 – 100 BCE) One of the oldest village-based societies on the shores of Lake Titicaca, known for building the first sunken ceremonial courtyards.
- Sanagasta (Culture, c. 1000 – 1450 CE) A late-period southern Andean society that focused on large-scale agriculture and the production of distinctively patterned textiles and ceramics.
I. Northern Andean Region
This high-altitude region was the cradle of independent, wealthy confederations and advanced metallurgy. Therefore, its geography of lush mountain valleys and paramo required unique agricultural solutions. The domestication of specialized maize varieties and the development of hydraulic raised fields were crucial to sustaining the large populations that inhabited the high-altitude basins.
Examples
San Agustín
The San Agustín culture (c. 1000 BCE – 1500 CE) is the oldest complex society known in the northern highlands. They built enormous earthen burial mounds and hundreds of sophisticated monumental stone statues that represent human-feline hybrids and ancestral spirits. Furthermore, their urbanism developed around sacred funerary landscapes and complex drainage systems that allowed for permanent occupation in the humid mountain environment.
Quimbaya and Calima
The powerful Quimbaya (c. 300–1000 CE) controlled the middle Cauca River region, becoming world-renowned for their unparalleled skills in gold and tumbaga casting. Conversely, the Calima culture (c. 200 BCE – 1000 CE) controlled the western slopes of the Andes, developing a distinct sequence of ceramic and jewelry styles. These two early societies built extensive hilltop settlements and some of the world’s most intricate goldwork, which served as both social markers and funerary offerings for the ruling elite.
Muisca Confederation
The Muisca culture (c. 600–1600 CE) was a major early religious and artistic phenomenon that dominated the high plateaus of central Colombia. Consequently, their influence spread widely through the control of prestige goods like salt, emeralds, and fine golden tunjos used in ritual offerings. Their main center of spiritual life was the temple complex of Sogamoso and the sacred lagoon of Guatavita, which inspired the famous European legends of El Dorado.
II. Central Andes Region
This high-altitude region saw the earliest and most enduring state structures in the Western Hemisphere. Therefore, its geography of high plateaus and steep mountain valleys required unique agricultural solutions. The domestication of the potato and the llama was crucial to the survival and expansion of every major civilization in this zone.
Examples
Caral-Supe
The Caral-Supe culture (c. 3500 BCE) is the oldest complex society known in the Americas. They built enormous earthen platform mounds and sophisticated irrigation systems that allowed them to thrive in the desert river valleys. Furthermore, their urbanism developed without the use of pottery or evidence of organized warfare, focusing instead on maritime trade and cotton production.
Chavín Culture
The Chavín culture (c. 900–200 BCE) was a major early religious and artistic phenomenon that served as the “Mother Culture” of the Andes. Consequently, their influence spread widely through prestige goods and religious iconography featuring jaguars, harpy eagles, and caimans. Their main center was the temple complex of Chavín de Huántar, featuring deep stone galleries and the Lanzón monolith.
Chimú Kingdom
The Chimú (c. 900–1470 CE) built the massive adobe city of Chan Chan, which was the largest city in ancient South America. Most importantly, they controlled a sophisticated coastal irrigation system until their defeat by the Inca.
III. Circum-Caribbean Region
This tropical region saw the earliest and most enduring seafaring state structures in South America and the Antilles. Therefore, its geography of island archipelagos and coastal mangrove forests required unique maritime solutions. The domestication of manioc (cassava) and the engineering of massive dugout canoes were crucial to the integration of the Caribbean basin.
Examples
Casimiroid and Ortoiroid
The Casimiroid and Ortoiroid cultures (c. 5000–2000 BCE) are the oldest complex societies known in the Caribbean islands and coastal fringes. They built extensive lithic workshops and semi-permanent coastal settlements focused on the intensive harvesting of marine mollusks and tropical fruits. Furthermore, their urbanism developed through high mobility and the strategic use of seasonal resource zones across the Greater and Lesser Antilles.
Saladoid and Ostionoid
The Saladoid and Ostionoid cultures (c. 500 BCE – 1000 CE) were a major early religious and artistic phenomenon that introduced settled agriculture and the first formal pottery to the islands. Consequently, their influence spread widely through prestige goods like white-on-red painted ceramics and the expansion of the Zemi cult. Their main centers were large circular villages organized around central plazas that served as communal burial and ritual spaces.
Taino and Kalinago
The powerful Taino (c. 1000–1500 CE) controlled the Greater Antilles and developed a sophisticated system of hereditary chiefdoms known as cacicazgos. Conversely, the Kalinago (c. 1200–1500 CE) controlled the Lesser Antilles and were known for their formidable maritime military prowess and deep-sea navigation. These two cultures built extensive trade networks and ceremonial ball courts, leaving a lasting legacy in the linguistics and foodways of the modern region.
IV. Amazonian Basin
The vast Amazonian Basin was traditionally thought to be sparsely populated. Recent discoveries, however, show large, complex, and sophisticated chiefdoms existed.
Examples
Marajoara Culture
The Marajoara (c. 400–1350 CE) inhabited Marajó Island at the mouth of the Amazon River. They are famous for their intricate, elaborate painted polychrome pottery. Consequently, they constructed enormous artificial earth mounds for settlement.
Geoglyphs of Acre
Recent deforestation has revealed extensive geoglyphs carved into the rainforest floor in Acre, Brazil. These structures suggest organized, complex societies. Furthermore, they imply large-scale planning within the forested interior.
Terra Preta
The widespread creation of highly fertile, human-made soil called Terra Preta (black earth) suggests massive, sustained populations. Therefore, the Amazon supported far larger societies than previously believed.
VI. Southern Cone
This region consists of the vast, temperate grasslands of the Pampas and the harsh Patagonian environment. Consequently, cultures here maintained strong nomadic and semi-nomadic hunting traditions. They remained politically separate from the massive Andean states.
Examples
Charrúa and Guaraní
Nomadic groups like the Charrúa and early Guaraní utilized mobile hunting-gathering economies. Conversely, the Guaraní also developed sophisticated shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn) agriculture. Their societies focused on small, independent communities.
Diaguita Culture (Revisit)
Diaguita Culture (Revisit): The Diaguita inhabited the arid valleys of northwestern Argentina. They were skilled metallurgists and potters. Consequently, their settlements included highly defensible stone fortifications on hilltops.
Trade and Cultural Exchange
While independent, these cultures still engaged in long-distance trade. They exchanged unique goods, like feathers and dyes, for highland textiles and metals. Therefore, they were integrated into the broader network of South America Civilizations.
