(c. 509 BCE – 476 CE)

Ancient Roman Republic

The Roman Republic, established around 509 BCE after the overthrow of the monarchy, was characterized by elected magistrates, most notably the two annual consuls, and a powerful Senate initially composed of patricians. Roman society emphasized military strength and steadily expanded its dominion across the Italian peninsula and the Mediterranean through conquest and alliances. Key developments included Roman law, representative government, and social struggles for political rights between patricians and plebeians.

Ancient Roman Empire

The Roman Empire, beginning in 27 BCE with Augustus, ushered in a long period of peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, alongside significant territorial expansion and advancements in engineering, architecture, law, and administration. Roman culture, deeply influenced by Greece, spread throughout the vast empire, leaving a lasting impact on language, law, governance, and urban development in the West. Despite its achievements, internal issues, economic challenges, and external pressures eventually contributed to the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE. The Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to thrive for another millennium.

(c. 1438-1533 CE)

The Inca Empire, known to its people as Tawantinsuyu, meaning “The Four Regions Together,” emerged from the highlands of Peru in the early 13th century CE and rapidly expanded to become the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. By the 15th and early 16th centuries, it stretched along the Andes Mountains, encompassing parts of modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, Argentina, and Chile. The empire’s administrative, political, and military center was located in the city of Cusco. The Inca state was remarkable for its efficient centralized bureaucracy, extensive road network (Qhapaq Ñan), sophisticated agricultural techniques adapted to the diverse Andean terrain, and unique record-keeping system using knotted strings called quipu.  

Inca society was highly structured, with the Sapa Inca (the emperor) considered a divine ruler, a descendant of the sun god Inti. The empire operated largely without a market economy or currency, relying instead on a system of reciprocity and redistribution of goods and labor obligations to the state. While the Inca imposed the worship of Inti, they generally allowed the persistence of local religious beliefs and incorporated local elites into their administrative system. The Inca Empire’s rapid expansion and complex organization were cut short by the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in 1532, leading to its eventual conquest by 1572.

(c. 550-1000 CE)

The Norte Chico Civilization, also known as the Caral-Supe civilization, flourished in the arid coastal region of north-central Peru between roughly 3000 and 1800 BCE. This pre-ceramic culture represents the earliest known complex society in the Americas and developed contemporaneously with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Characterized by its lack of pottery and apparent absence of visual art, the Norte Chico civilization is remarkable for its monumental architecture, including large earthwork platform mounds, sunken circular plazas, and extensive irrigation systems that allowed for agriculture in the otherwise arid environment.

The civilization was composed of numerous major population centers situated in the river valleys of the Fortaleza, Pativilca, and Supe. The most extensively studied site is Caral, a large urban complex featuring impressive public buildings and residential areas. Evidence suggests a complex social organization and a sophisticated government capable of managing large-scale construction projects and trade networks, which included both coastal and inland communities. Notably, there is little evidence of warfare during this period, suggesting a society that may have been organized through trade and cooperation. The Norte Chico civilization began to decline around 1800 BCE, with more powerful centers emerging in other regions of Peru.

(c. 3000-1800 BCE)

The Norte Chico Civilization, also known as the Caral-Supe civilization, flourished in the arid coastal region of north-central Peru between roughly 3000 and 1800 BCE. This pre-ceramic culture represents the earliest known complex society in the Americas and developed contemporaneously with the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Characterized by its lack of pottery and apparent absence of visual art, the Norte Chico civilization is remarkable for its monumental architecture, including large earthwork platform mounds, sunken circular plazas, and extensive irrigation systems that allowed for agriculture in the otherwise arid environment.

Thsi Ancient civilization was composed of numerous major population centers situated in the river valleys of the Fortaleza, Pativilca, and Supe. The most extensively studied site is Caral, a large urban complex featuring impressive public buildings and residential areas. Evidence suggests a complex social organization and a sophisticated government capable of managing large-scale construction projects and trade networks, which included both coastal and inland communities. Notably, there is little evidence of warfare during this period, suggesting a society that may have been organized through trade and cooperation. The Norte Chico Ancient Civilization began to decline around 1800 BCE, with more powerful centers emerging in other regions of Peru.

(c. 2000 BCE – 1697 CE)

The Mayan Ancient Civilization, one of the most significant and advanced in Mesoamerica, flourished in a region encompassing southeastern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and parts of Honduras and El Salvador. Their history is typically divided into the Preclassic (c. 2000 BCE – 250 CE), Classic (c. 250-900 CE), and Postclassic (c. 900-1500s CE) periods. The Classic period is particularly notable for its peak in monumental construction, urbanism, hieroglyphic writing, and intellectual and artistic achievements. The Maya developed numerous independent city-states, each with its own rulers, engaging in complex political relationships and sometimes warfare. Their cities featured impressive architecture, including towering pyramid-temples, elaborate palaces, ceremonial ballcourts, and sophisticated astronomical observatories.  

The Maya made remarkable intellectual advancements, developing a complex hieroglyphic writing system, an advanced understanding of mathematics (including the concept of zero), and intricate calendrical systems, including the Long Count calendar designed to track vast stretches of time. This Ancient Civilizations cosmology and religion were deeply intertwined with their calendar and astronomical observations, involving a pantheon of deities and complex rituals, including bloodletting and, at times, human sacrifice. While the southern lowland cities experienced a decline around 900 CE for reasons still debated, Mayan civilization continued to thrive in the Yucatán Peninsula until the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, leaving behind a rich legacy of archaeological sites and a vibrant cultural heritage that continues to this day.  

(c. 800-1600 CE)

The Mississippian culture flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately ¹ 800 to 1600 CE. This culture is known for its large, earthen platform mounds, often serving as bases for structures like houses, temples, or burial buildings. Mississippian societies were typically organized as chiefdoms with hereditary rulers and developed a complex social hierarchy. Their economy was largely based on maize agriculture, supplemented by hunting, fishing, and gathering. They also established extensive trade networks that stretched across much of the continent.

One of the most significant Mississippian centers was Cahokia, located near present-day St. Louis, Illinois. At its peak around 1100 CE, Cahokia was a major urban and religious center with a population estimated between 10,000 and 20,000, featuring numerous mounds, including the massive Monks Mound. The Mississippian culture also shared a common belief system, known as the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, evident in their art and iconography. The reasons for the decline of Mississippian societies varied regionally and may have included factors such as environmental changes, resource depletion, social upheaval, and the introduction of European diseases in the 16th century.

(c. 1600-400 BCE)

The Olmec civilization, flourishing in the Gulf Coast of Mexico (modern-day Veracruz and Tabasco) from roughly 1200 to 400 BCE, is considered the first major civilization in Mesoamerica and a foundational culture for later societies like the Maya and Aztec. The Olmec heartland featured swampy lowlands punctuated by low hills, where they established ceremonial centers such as San Lorenzo and La Venta. These centers were likely used for elite activities and rituals, while most of the population resided in smaller, surrounding villages. The Olmec were skilled agriculturalists, cultivating crops like maize, beans, and squash, and their name, given by the later Aztecs, means “rubber people,” possibly due to their extraction and use of latex.

The Olmec are best known for their distinctive art style, particularly the colossal heads carved from basalt rock, some reaching impressive heights and weights. These heads, believed to represent rulers, are a hallmark of their civilization. Olmec art also includes intricate jade carvings and anthropomorphic figures, often with a characteristic “were-jaguar” motif, suggesting a complex religious system with deities blending human and animal traits. This Ancient Civilizations development of early forms of writing and a calendar system, and archaeological evidence indicates they practiced ritual bloodletting and played the Mesoamerican ballgame. The Ancient Civilizations extensive trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods like jade and obsidian across Mesoamerica, and their cultural influence spread widely before their mysterious decline around 400 BCE, possibly due to environmental changes.

(c. 60,000 BCE – present)

Aboriginal Australians, the Indigenous peoples of the Australian continent and its surrounding islands, possess one of the world’s oldest continuous living cultures, with evidence of habitation dating back at least 65,000 years. Their history is deeply intertwined with the land, known as “Country,” which is central to their identity, spirituality, and way of life. Before European colonization, Aboriginal people lived in diverse groups, each with their own languages, customs, laws, and intricate kinship systems that dictated social interactions and responsibilities. They were skilled hunter-gatherers, adapting to the continent’s varied environments and possessing extensive knowledge of its flora, fauna, and seasonal changes, knowledge passed down through oral traditions, ceremonies, and art.

Spirituality and the Dreaming are fundamental to Aboriginal cultures. The Dreaming encompasses their creation stories, laws, and the interconnectedness of all things – past, present, and future. It explains the origins of the land, its features, and the beings that inhabit it, providing a moral and social framework for life. Art plays a vital role in expressing these spiritual beliefs, often depicting Dreamtime stories, ancestral beings, and the connection to Country through symbols and patterns. Reverence for the land is paramount, with Aboriginal people viewing themselves as custodians with a responsibility to care for it and its resources for future generations.

(c. 1600 BCE – 500 CE)

The Lapita Culture, a Neolithic Austronesian people, is recognized through their distinctive material culture, particularly their elaborately decorated pottery. Originating from Island Southeast Asia, possibly the northern Philippines, they undertook significant seaborne migrations across Island Melanesia between roughly 1600 and 500 BCE. These skilled navigators were the first to settle much of Remote Oceania, reaching as far as Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, and their expansion is linked to the spread of Oceanic Austronesian languages.

Lapita settlements were typically coastal, and their culture included horticulture based on root and tree crops, supplemented by fishing and trade. This Ancient Civilizations most recognizable artifacts are their fired pottery, often adorned with intricate geometric designs created by dentate stamping. The Lapita people are considered the ancestors of many contemporary Pacific Islanders, and their culture represents a crucial chapter in the prehistory of the Pacific, demonstrating remarkable seafaring and colonization abilities.

(c. 1200-1628 CE)

The Saudeleur Dynasty was the first organized government to unite the people of Pohnpei island in Micronesia, ruling from approximately 1100 to 1628 CE. Their reign is best known for the construction of Nan Madol, an impressive complex of artificial islets built from basalt and coral boulders, serving as the dynasty’s political and ceremonial center. This Ancient Civilizations rulers established a centralized and hierarchical system, claiming divine descent and exerting considerable control over Pohnpei and neighboring islands, likely aided by their monopoly over the stone resources used for Nan Madol’s construction.  

Pohnpeian legends describe the Saudeleur rulers as initially benevolent but gradually becoming oppressive, making arbitrary demands and disrespecting local deities, which fostered resentment among the populace. The dynasty ultimately fell with the invasion of Isokelekel, a semi-mythical figure from Kosrae, who replaced the Saudeleur’s centralized rule with a more decentralized system of chiefs known as Nahnmwarki, which continues to exist today. Recent archaeological research suggests that environmental factors, including sea-level rise and climate oscillations, also played a significant role in the dynasty’s decline, potentially contributing to social unrest and the eventual overthrow of the Saudeleurs.