Andean Cultures and Civilizations

A. Early Lithic and Hunter-Gatherer Peoples (c. 15,000 – 8000 BCE)

1. Paiján Culture (North Coast Peru): Coastal hunter-gatherers known for a distinctive, long-stemmed projectile point style.
2. Fell Cave People (Patagonia, Chile/Argentina): Early inhabitants of the far south, identified by the famous fishtail projectile points.
3. El Inga People (Ecuador): Paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers of the Ecuadorian highlands.
4. Ayacucho Lithic Tradition (Peruvian Highlands): Broad cultural tradition of early hunter-gatherers in the central highlands.
5. Lauricocha Hunter-Gatherers (Peruvian Highlands): Early highland peoples associated with distinct projectile points and cave art.
6. Chivateros People (Central Coast Peru): Early lithic industry identified near the mouth of the Chillón River.
7. Viscachani People (Bolivian Altiplano): Early hunter-gatherers of the high plateau region.
8. Taltal People (North Chile Coast): Coastal lithic tradition of specialized hunters and gatherers.
9. Monte Verde Settlers (South Chile): The earliest widely accepted inhabitants of the Americas, predating the Clovis culture.
10. Acha People (South Peru/North Chile Coast): The first people associated with the Chinchorro mummification tradition.
11. Abra People (Colombian Andes): Early hunter-gatherer groups in the Bogotá savanna area.
12. Quebrada Jaguay People (South Peru Coast): Specialized coastal fishing and gathering peoples.
13. Junín Hunter-Gatherers (Central Peruvian Highlands): Paleo-Indian presence around the Junín basin.
14. Amotape Tradition (North Coast Peru): Early lithic tradition preceding Paiján.
15. Huentelauquén Culture (Chile Coast): Coastal lithic tradition known for unique circular stone artifacts.

B. Late Lithic and Initial Sedentary Cultures (c. 8000 – 4000 BCE)

This phase sees the shift to specialized regional economies and the slow beginning of plant and animal domestication.

16. Las Vegas Culture (Ecuador Coast): One of the earliest fully sedentary groups on the coast, known for early cemeteries.
17. Chinchorro Culture (South Peru/North Chile Coast): Coastal culture famous for developing the world’s oldest artificial mummification techniques.
18. Guitarrero Preceramic Peoples (Peruvian Highlands): People associated with some of the earliest evidence of plant domestication (beans, squash).
19. Telarmachay Peoples (Central Peruvian Highlands): Key culture in the early domestication of camelids (llamas and alpacas).
20. Chilca Fisherman (Central Coast Peru): Specialized maritime subsistence culture.
21. Asana People (South Peru/Bolivia Border): Early sedentary highlands group.
22. Real Alto People (Ecuador Coast): Early sedentary community, a precursor to Valdivia.
23. Siches Preceramic People (North Peru Highlands): Regional group transitioning to agriculture.
24. Amotape-Chira People (North Coast Peru): Later preceramic phase in the far north.
25. Lomas Oasis Peoples (Peruvian Coast): Groups specializing in exploiting the seasonal coastal fog oases.
26. Jiskairumoko People (Lake Titicaca Basin): Early settled group on the altiplano.
27. Puente People (Peru): Regional preceramic group.
28. Huaca Prieta People (North Coast Peru): Early weavers and cotton growers.
29. Ring People (Peruvian Highlands): Defined by their unique circular settlement patterns.
30. Morro People (North Chile): Groups associated with the Chinchorro tradition.
31. Quiani Fishermen (North Chile Coast): Specialized coastal subsistence groups.

C. Late Preceramic and Initial Monumental Cultures (c. 4000 – 1800 BCE)

This phase is characterized by the rise of complex society, large-scale construction, sophisticated farming, and widespread trade, setting the stage for true civilizations.

32. Norte Chico Civilization / Caral-Supe People (Central Coast Peru): The first major complex society and civilization in the Americas, noted for extensive monumental architecture.
33. Kotosh-Mito Tradition (Peruvian Highlands): Cultural tradition responsible for the earliest monumental architecture in the highlands (Temple of the Crossed Hands).
34. Valdivia Culture (Ecuador Coast): One of the oldest settled, ceramic-producing cultures in the Americas, known for distinctive figurines.
35. El Paraíso Builders (Central Coast Peru): Builders of massive U-shaped ceremonial complexes.
36. Cerro Paloma People (Central Coast Peru): Early villagers known for their complex architectural sequencing.
37. La Galgada Builders (Peruvian Highlands): Monumental architecture tradition known for ceremonial fire pits and subterranean plazas.
38. Vichama People (North Coast Peru): Complex society in the Norte Chico sphere.
39. Aldas People (Central Coast Peru): Late Preceramic coastal group, transitional to the Initial Period.
40. Huaca Prieta Weavers (North Coast Peru): Renowned for complex early textile designs.
41. Asia Valley People (Central Coast Peru): Coastal settled group known for early domestic architecture.

32. Moxeque Builders (Casma Valley, Peru): Early center of monumental architecture in a fertile valley.
33. Ventarrón Builders (North Coast Peru): Site showing early ceremonial structures and polychrome murals.
34. Chupacigarro People (Norte Chico, Peru): Ceremonial center associated with Caral.
35. Supe Valley Peoples (Central Coast Peru): The cluster of small, interacting populations that formed the Norte Chico state.
36. Buena Vista People (Central Coast Peru): Culture noted for early astronomical alignment in their architecture.

D. Regional & Peripheral Early Cultures (c. 15,000 – 1800 BCE)

Groups from outside the Central Peruvian core.

47. Taima-Taima People (Venezuela Andes Periphery): Paleo-Indian hunters of megafauna.
48. Diaguita-Formative People (Argentine Andes): Ancestral groups in the Calchaquí valleys.
49. Atacameño Ancestors (Chilean Andes): Early peoples of the Atacama Desert.
50. Quiani People (Chile Coast): Chinchorro-related fisher-gatherers.
51. Cueva de Los Toldos People (Patagonia): Early hunter-gatherers of the Argentine South.
52. Tierradentro Ancestors (Colombian Andes): Early peoples of the future Tierradentro region.
53. Pampa Grande Ancestors (North Peru): Early occupation in the Lambayeque area.
54. Serrano People (Chilean Interior): Early inland hunter-gatherers.
55. Guane Ancestors (Colombian Andes): Early peoples of the Santander area.
56. Machalilla Ancestors (Ecuador Coast): Early settled peoples preceding Machalilla culture.
57. Chorrera Ancestors (Ecuador Coast): Early groups preceding the Chorrera culture.
58. Tairona Ancestors (Colombian Sierra Nevada): Early occupation in this mountainous region.
59. Chibcha Ancestors (Colombian Altiplano): Early hunter-gatherers in the future Muisca territory.
60. Tabaluba People (Colombian Andes): Identified by lithic tradition.

61. Chavin de Huantar Ancestors (Peruvian Highlands): Early preceramic occupation at the future ceremonial site.
62. Pacopampa Ancestors (Peruvian Highlands): Preceramic occupation phase.
63. Gávilan Peoples (Peru Coast): Preceramic fishing group.
64. Punta Negra People (North Chile): Coastal subsistence group.
65. Río Loco People (Argentine Andes): Regional lithic tradition.
66. Cochabamba Early Farmers (Bolivian Valleys): Earliest farming groups in the region.
67. San Pedro Settlers (Atacama, Chile): Early settled group in the oasis region.
68. Buena Vista Coastal Complex (Peru): Early coastal architecture style.
69. La Pampa People (Peru Coast): Preceramic group near the coast.
70. Quipapapa People (Argentine Andes): Early hunter-gatherer group.
71. Jaywa People (Ayacucho, Peru): Specific late lithic period people.
72. Chihua People (Ayacucho, Peru): Specific specialized preceramic people.
73. Panaulauca People (Junín, Peru): Highlands specialized subsistence group.
74. Intihuasi People (Argentine Andes): Hunter-gatherers of the pre-Andean plains.
75. Huarmey Valley Peoples (Peru Coast): Early settlers of the Huarmey Valley.
76. Pativilca Valley Peoples (Peru Coast): Early settlers of the Pativilca Valley.
77. Chillón Valley Peoples (Peru Coast): Early settlers of the Chillón Valley.
78. Casma Valley Settlers (Peru Coast): Early sedentary settlers before the Initial Period centers.
79. Tablada de Lurín People (Peru Coast): Early settled group near Lima.
80. Asia Site People (Peru Coast): Early settlement builders.
81. Maranga Ancestors (Central Coast Peru): Early settlement in the future Lima culture area.
82. Cajamarca Ancestors (North Peru Highlands): Early settlers of the future Cajamarca basin.
83. Huanca Ancestors (Central Peru Highlands): Early settlers of the future Huanca territory.
84. Virú Valley Preceramic (North Coast Peru): Early occupation phase.
85. Salinar Ancestors (North Coast Peru): Early settlers of the future Salinar area.
86. Gallinazo Ancestors (North Coast Peru): Early settled groups.
87. Pacasmayo Preceramic (North Coast Peru): Regional coastal tradition.
88. Zaña Valley Peoples (North Coast Peru): Early settled groups.
89. Piura Valley Peoples (North Coast Peru): Early settlers of the Piura area.
90. Mala Valley Peoples (Peru Coast): Early settled groups south of Lima.
91. Tambos People (Coastal Peru): Groups utilizing coastal resources.
92. Alto Salaverry People (North Coast Peru): Late preceramic settled group.
93. Puémape People (North Coast Peru): Early coastal settlement.
94. Los Gavilanes People (Peru Coast): Early agricultural group known for cotton.
95. Hacha People (Osmore Valley, Peru): Early preceramic people.
96. Arroyo del Vizcaíno People (Uruguay/Periphery): Early hunter-gatherer presence.
97. Quillagua People (Chile Coast): Coastal group of the Atacama region.
98. Las Haldas Settlers (Central Coast Peru): Early preceramic occupants of the future monumental site.
99. Ring People (Central Highlands): Preceramic group known for circular architecture.
100. Chichas People Ancestors (Bolivian South): Early groups in the region.

A. Central Andean (Peru) Cultures and Traditions

1. Ancón Tradition: Coastal tradition near Lima, known for early ceramic styles and cemeteries.
2. Apurímac Valley Cultures: Regional groups in the Apurímac drainage area influenced by Initial and Early Horizon developments.
3. Barrio Culture: Early ceramic phase in the Central Highlands.
4. Casma Valley Cultures: Regional societies in the Casma Valley, including major Initial Period centers.
5. Chavín Culture: The core culture of the Early Horizon, based at Chavín de Huántar; its art and religious style spread across the Andean world.
6. Chicama Valley Cultures: Regional societies on the north coast, transitional from Preceramic to Cupisnique.
7. Chongoyape Tradition: Regional style on the north coast, noted for early gold work.
8. Cupisnique Culture (North Coast): Regional cultural manifestation contemporary with early Chavín, known for robust ceramics and ceremonial architecture.
9. Curayacu Culture: Early ceramic phase on the central coast near Lima.
10. Hacha Site Cultures: Regional groups in the Osmore Valley (Southern Peru/Chile).
11. Huaricoto Tradition: Highlands tradition in the Callejón de Huaylas, noted for early ceremonial fire pits (Initial Period).
12. Ichma Ancestors: Early groups in the Lurín Valley, ancestral to the later Ichma/Lima peoples.
13. Inca-Raqay Phase: Early occupation phase in the Cusco region.
14. Junín Ceramic Cultures: Regional societies around Lake Junín utilizing early pottery.
15. Kuntur Wasi Culture: Early highland ceremonial center (North Peru) that pre-dates and then interacts with Chavín influence.
16. Luz Tradition: Early ceramic tradition on the central coast.
17. Mollake Tradition: Early ceramic manifestation in the Moquegua Valley (Southern Peru).
18. Pacopampa Culture: Large highland ceremonial center in Northern Peru, contemporary with Chavín.
19. Paracas Culture (Initial Phase): Early settlements in the Ica/Pisco region, precursor to the famous Paracas Necrópolis textiles.
20. Puerto Moorin Culture: Early ceramic phase in the Virú Valley (North Coast).
21. Salinar Culture (Early Phase): Initial development of this North Coast culture, transitional between Cupisnique and later Moche.
22. Sechura Culture: Early ceramic tradition on the far north coast of Peru.
23. Tablada de Lurín Cultures: Early ceramic manifestation in the central coastal region.
24. Tembladera Sites: Early ceramic sites in the Jequetepeque Valley (North Coast).
25. Urabamba Valley Cultures: Early groups inhabiting the upper Urubamba River valley.
26. Urubamba Valley Ceramic Phase: Initial ceramic phase in the Cusco region.
27. Wari Precursors: Early ceramic groups in the Ayacucho basin that later developed into the Wari.
28. Virú Valley Ceramics: Initial ceramic traditions in the Virú Valley.
29. Chavín de Huántar Pilgrims: The diverse peoples who traveled to and were influenced by the main Chavín temple.
30. Garagay People: Builders of a large U-shaped ceremonial center near Lima during the Initial Period.
31. Kotosh Tradition (Chavín Phase): Ceramic phase showing distinct Chavín influence in the central Peruvian highlands.

B. Southern Andean (Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) Cultures and Traditions

32. Arica Ceramic Tradition: Earliest ceramic phase in the Arica region (Northern Chile).
33. Calchaquí Ancestors: Formative groups in the Calchaquí valleys (Argentine Andes).
34. Diaguita Ancestors: Early Formative groups in the Chilean/Argentine Andes before the emergence of the classic Diaguita culture.
35. Huentelauquén Ceramic Phase: Later occupation of the Huentelauquén sites with the introduction of pottery.
36. Isluga Peoples: Early settled groups in the Chilean Altiplano.
37. Lauca Valley Cultures: Early groups in the high desert valleys of Northern Chile.
38. San Pedro de Atacama Formative: Early settled groups in the Atacama oasis, beginning agricultural practices.
39. Taira Culture: Early maritime groups on the coast of Northern Chile.
40. Titicaca Basin Formative: Broad term for early ceramic societies around Lake Titicaca before Pukara/Tiwanaku.
41. Wankarani Culture (Early Phase): Early settled agricultural communities in the Bolivian altiplano, contemporary with initial Tiwanaku development.
42. Yura People Precursors: Early settled groups in the Bolivian south.
43. Viscachani Ceramic Phase: Introduction of ceramics to the Viscachani high-altitude sites (Bolivia).

C. Northern Andean (Ecuador, Colombia) Cultures and Traditions

44. Bahía Culture (Initial Phase): Early settlements on the Pacific coast of Ecuador, known for large figurines.
45. Carchi Ceramics: Early ceramic phases in the Carchi region (Northern Ecuador/Southern Colombia).

44. Cerro Narrío Culture (Ecuador Highlands): Important highland center noted for specialized trade and distinct pottery styles.
45. Chorrera Culture (Ecuador Coast): Widespread and sophisticated cultural tradition on the coast of Ecuador, known for finely made, effigy ceramics.
46. Cotocollao Culture (Ecuador Highlands): Initial Period culture in the Quito basin, known for early village life.
47. Gualupita Tradition: Early ceramic tradition in the coastal Manabí Province (Ecuador).
48. Machalilla Culture (Ecuador Coast): Followed Valdivia, known for distinctive bottle shapes and cranial deformation practices.
49. Jama-Coaque Ancestors: Early formative groups in the northern Manabí Province (Ecuador).
50. Tierradentro Precursors: Early agricultural groups in the Colombian highlands (Cauca).
51. Tairona Precursors: Early settled groups in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia).
52. Muisca Precursors (Herrera Period): The earliest ceramic period in the Bogotá savanna, ancestral to the Muisca.
53. Quimbaya Ancestors: Formative groups in the Cauca Valley (Colombia) preceding the classic gold working phase.
54. San Agustín Ancestors: Early ceramic groups in the upper Magdalena River region, preceding the monolithic sculpture phase.
55. Valdivia Culture (Late Phase): Final stages of the Valdivia tradition, overlapping with Machalilla.
56. Zacatula Culture: Early ceramic manifestation in the Guayas Basin (Ecuador).
57. Túquerres Phase: Early ceramic manifestation in the Nariño region (Colombia).
58. Ilama Phase (Calima): Earliest ceramic phase of the Calima cultural sequence in the Cauca Valley (Colombia).

D. Further Sites and Manifestations

61. Chavín de Huántar Site: The epicenter of the Early Horizon.
62. Sechín Alto Site: Massive Initial Period monumental complex in the Casma Valley.
63. Cerro Sechín Site: Initial Period site known for dramatic relief sculptures of warriors.
64. Moxeque/Pampa de las Llamas Sites: Twin ceremonial centers in the Casma Valley.
65. Las Aldas Site: Key Initial Period site on the central coast.
66. Kuntur Wasi Site: Major gold-producing ceremonial center.
67. Pacopampa Site: Northern highland ceremonial center with megalithic platforms.
68. Cardal Site: U-shaped Initial Period center in the Lurín Valley.
69. Mina Perdida Site: Coastal site known for early ceramic iconography.
70. Cusco Valley Initial Cultures: Early ceramic groups in the future Inca capital area.
71. Pallka Site: Initial Period center in the Ancash region.
72. Curayacu Site: Early ceramic cemetery on the Central Coast.
73. Atalla Site: Early ceramic center in the highlands.
74. Huarangal Site: Initial Period site in the Chillón Valley.
75. Chongoyape Site: Northern site associated with early gold artifacts.
76. Huaca de los Reyes Site: Large U-shaped complex in the Moche Valley.
77. Huaca Herederos Site: Early ceremonial center in the Jequetepeque Valley.
78. Jequetepeque Valley Ceramics: Regional ceramic styles.
79. Tablada de Lurín Sites: Early settlements with ceramics.
80. Huánuco Pampa Ancestors: Early settlement in the future Wari region.
81. Ayacucho Basin Formative: Early ceramic development in the southern highlands.
82. Cerro Narrio Site: Major trade and ceremonial center in Ecuador.
83. Real Alto Late Phase: Final Valdivia occupation.
84. Jama-Coaque Site: Early ceramic settlement on the Ecuadorian coast.
85. La Tolita Precursors: Early formative groups in the Esmeraldas region (Ecuador).
86. Capulí Ancestors: Early formative groups in the Nariño region (Colombia).
87. Diaguita Formative Sites: Early permanent settlements in the Argentine Northwest.
88. Wankarani Sites: Cluster of early altiplano settlements (Bolivia).
89. Chiripa Culture (Early Phase): Early settled culture in the Lake Titicaca basin, related to Pukara.
90. Pampa de Paiján Ceramics: Introduction of pottery to the Paiján region.
91. Puerto Moorin Sites: Settlements in the Virú Valley.
92. Virú Valley Ceramic Groups: Regional groups defined by ceramic styles.
93. Nepeña Valley Sites: Initial Period ceremonial centers.
94. Santa Valley Initial Cultures: Early settlers of the Santa Valley.
95. Marañón Valley Cultures: Regional groups in the high jungle transition zone.
96. Huancabamba Region Groups: Early settled groups in Northern Peru/Ecuador border.
97. Titicaca Basin Stone Circle Builders: Early ceremonial architecture in the region.
98. Las Haldas People: Coastal ceremonial population.
99. Chavin People: The highland group centered at Chavin de Huántar.
100. Cupisnique People: The coastal people associated with Cupisnique ceramics.

A. Central Andean (Peru) Cultures and Traditions

1. Cajamarca Culture (Early Phase): Initial development of this highland culture in Northern Peru, known for thin-walled, distinct pottery.
2. Chancay Ancestors: Early groups in the Chancay Valley on the Central Coast, preceding the Late Intermediate culture.
3. Huarpa Culture: Regional culture in the Ayacucho Basin, considered the immediate precursor to the Wari Empire.
4. Lima Culture: Central Coast culture near Lima, known for U-shaped adobe constructions and the Interlocking ceramic style.
5. Moche Culture: Dominant regional state on the North Coast, famous for monumental adobe structures (Huacas) and realistic portrait ceramics.
6. Nazca Culture (Classic Phase): Southern Coast culture, known for vibrant polychrome pottery and the creation of the monumental Nazca Lines.
7. Pachacamac Ancestors: Early settlements in the Lurín Valley, foundational to the later religious center.
8. Pucará Culture: Influential highland culture in the northern Lake Titicaca Basin, known for refined stone sculpture and large platforms.
9. Recuay Culture: Highland culture in the Callejón de Huaylas, noted for fine negative pottery and stone sculpture.
10. Salinar Culture (Late Phase): North Coast culture, transitional between Chavín-influenced Cupisnique and the Moche state.
11. Tiwanaku Ancestors (Early Phase): The initial village and town development around the eventual imperial center on the Altiplano.
12. Virú Culture (or Gallinazo): North Coast culture centered in the Virú Valley, known for large settlements and complex architecture, coexisting with early Moche.
13. Warmi Culture: Regional variation or early phase in the Huarmey Valley.
14. Huaura Culture: Regional development in the Huaura Valley (Central Coast).
15. Nepeña Valley Cultures: Regional groups noted for ceremonial centers and early irrigation.
16. Huari Ceramics (Early): Initial local ceramic styles in the Ayacucho region.
17. Ocucaje Sites: Important cemeteries on the South Coast, showing a transition from Paracas to Nazca styles.
18. Acarí Valley Cultures: Regional groups on the South Coast.
19. Topará Culture: Regional group in the Chincha Valley, showing late Paracas/early Nazca transition.
20. Lurin Valley Cultures: Regional groups on the Central Coast, including Lima and early Ichma.
21. Cahuachi Pilgrims: Worshippers traveling to the massive Nazca ceremonial center.
22. Puerto Moorin (Late Phase): Final stage of the Puerto Moorin tradition in the Virú Valley.
23. Chancayllo Peoples: Early settled groups in the Chancay Valley.
24. Sicasica Cultures: Regional highland groups south of the Altiplano.
25. Cerro del Oro Culture: Regional settlement site in the Cañete Valley (Central Coast).
26. Jequetepeque Valley Cultures: Regional groups under Moche influence.
27. San José de Moro Peoples: Elite groups in the Jequetepeque Valley, associated with Moche burials.
28. Pampa Grande Ancestors: Early settled groups in the Lambayeque Valley.
29. Pañamarca Artists: Moche-affiliated artists known for murals in the Nepeña Valley.
30. Cajamarquilla Settlers (Early): Initial occupation of this large central coast site.
31. Pukara People: The actual population centered at Pukara (Northern Altiplano).
32. Huaca del Sol Elites: The ruling class associated with the largest adobe pyramid (Moche).
33. Sipán Elite: The high-ranking individuals buried at the Moche site of Sipán.
34. Huaca de la Luna People: The religious and common populace associated with the ceremonial center (Moche).
35. Cerro Blanco People: Highland group in the Ayacucho region.

B. Northern Andean (Ecuador, Colombia) Cultures and Traditions

36. Capulí Culture: Pre-Columbian culture in the Southern Colombian/Northern Ecuadorian highlands (Nariño region), known for distinctive pottery.
37. Jambelí Culture: Coastal culture of Ecuador/Peru border, focused on maritime resources.
38. Jama-Coaque Culture: Coastal culture in Ecuador (Manabí), known for detailed ceramic figures depicting daily life and rituals.
39. La Tolita Culture (Tumaco-La Tolita): Coastal culture spanning Ecuador and Colombia, famed for early platinum working and fine pottery.
40. Manteño Ancestors: Formative groups in coastal Ecuador, preceding the Late Intermediate culture.
41. Pasto People (Early Phase): Early inhabitants of the Nariño region (Southern Colombia), related to the Capulí.
42. Quimbaya Culture (Classic Phase): Culture in the Middle Cauca Valley (Colombia), reaching its peak in exceptional goldwork artistry.
43. Tairona Ancestors (Early): Settled farming communities in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia), foundational to the later confederation.
44. Tierradentro Culture (Early): Initial phase of the culture known for unique underground burial chambers (hypogea) in Colombia.
45. Tolima Culture: Regional culture in the Magdalena Valley (Colombia), noted for its flat, anthropomorphic gold tumbaga pendants.

36. Yotoco Culture: Ceramic and agricultural phase in the Calima region (Colombia), succeeding Ilama.
37. Tucanoan Ancestors: Early Amazonian groups adjacent to the eastern Andean slopes.
38. Calima Valley Cultures: The overall cultural sequence in the Cauca Valley.
39. Bahía Culture (Late Phase): Final stages of this coastal Ecuadorian culture.
40. Jama-Coaque Figurines: The artists and makers of the distinct ceramic figures.
41. La Tolita Metalworkers: The skilled artisans who pioneered platinum metallurgy.
42. Cofán Ancestors: Early inhabitants of the Napo River region (Ecuador/Colombia).
43. Píllaro Phase: Regional ceramic phase in the Ecuadorian highlands.

C. Southern Andean (Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) Cultures and Traditions

54. Tiwanaku (Middle/Late Formative): The period of major expansion and crystallization of the Tiwanaku state and its key iconography.
55. Wankarani Culture (Late Phase): Final phase of this altiplano culture, which was contemporary with and eventually eclipsed by Tiwanaku.
56. Molles Culture: Early agricultural culture in the Chilean Norte Chico region.
57. Aguada Ancestors: Formative groups in the Argentine Andes, preceding the classic Aguada style.
58. San Pedro I & II Phases: Early and Middle settled phases in the Atacama oasis, characterized by early trade and local crafts.
59. Chiribaya Ancestors: Early settled groups in the Moquegua Valley/Northern Chile coast.
60. Falda del Carmen Peoples: Regional group in the Argentine Andes.
61. Tupuraya Culture: Regional culture in the Bolivian Cochabamba region.
62. Sauce Culture: Early agricultural group in the Argentine Andes.
63. Alamito Peoples: Regional cultural group in the Argentine Andes.
64. Condorhuasi Culture: Archaeological culture in the Argentine Andes known for distinctive pottery.
65. Wankarani People: The local population of the Bolivian altiplano who participated in this culture.
66. San Pedro Oasis Farmers: The settled agricultural communities of the Atacama.

D. Further Regional Cultures and Manifestations

67. Huarpa People: The local population of the Ayacucho basin.
68. Nazca Geoglyph Artists: The people responsible for designing and creating the Nazca Lines.
69. Moche Potters: The specialized artisans who created the portrait vessels.
70. Cajamarca Potters: Artisans creating the fine, white, tripod pottery.
71. Recuay Stoneworkers: Artisans specializing in carved stone monuments.
72. Lupaca Ancestors: Early settled groups in the Titicaca basin, ancestors to the Aymara lordship.
73. Colla Ancestors: Early settled groups in the Titicaca basin, ancestors to the Aymara lordship.
74. Virú Black-White-Red Ceramics: Specific ceramic style defining the Virú Culture.
75. Chancas Ancestors: Early groups in the Andean highlands who later became formidable opponents of the Inca.
76. Pasto People: Indigenous groups of the Nariño region, Colombia/Ecuador border.
77. Sutagao Ancestors: Early groups in the Cundinamarca region (Colombia).
78. Panche Ancestors: Early groups in the Cundinamarca region (Colombia).
79. Chimila Ancestors: Early settlers of the Caribbean coastal plains of Colombia.
80. Muzo Ancestors: Early settlers of the Colombian emerald mining region.
81. Timoto-Cuica Ancestors: Early settled groups in the Venezuelan Andes.
82. Cofán People: Indigenous people of the upper Amazon and Andean foothills.
83. Awa (Cuaiquer) Ancestors: Early settled groups near the Ecuador/Colombia border.
84. Quitu Ancestors: Early inhabitants of the Quito basin.
85. Cañari Ancestors: Early formative groups in the southern Ecuadorian highlands.
86. Tiahuanaco Village (Early): The local community around the Tiwanaku ceremonial center.
87. Diaguita Alfarería: Early ceramic manifestations in the Diaguita territory (Argentina).
88. Chonos Ancestors: Early nomadic maritime groups in Southern Chile.
89. Aymara Ancestors: Broadly, the early settled peoples of the Altiplano.
90. Quechua Ancestors: Broadly, the early settled peoples of the Central Peruvian highlands.
91. Puerto Rico (Moche Site): Large Moche administrative center.
92. Galindo (Moche Site): Large Moche site in the Moche Valley.
93. Moche River Valley Peoples: The population of the Moche Valley.
94. Lambayeque Valley Peoples (Early Moche): Moche occupation of the Lambayeque Valley.
95. Samaná Culture: Regional culture in the Central Andes.
96. Huacas in Chicama Valley: Moche centers in the Chicama Valley.
97. Sipán Site (Moche): Location of the famous royal tombs.
98. Dos Cabezas Site (Moche): Elite burial site.
99. Pampa Grande (Moche Initial): Early occupation phase of the future Wari site.
100. Moquegua Valley Settlers: Early settled groups in the valley, later a Moche and Tiwanaku periphery.

A. Central Andean (Peru) Cultures and Traditions

1. Wari Empire: The dominant highland empire centered in the Ayacucho Basin; known for its centralized administration, urban planning, and expansive road system.
2. Tiwanaku Colonialists: Peoples who migrated from the Altiplano to establish enclaves in coastal valleys, notably the Moquegua Valley in Southern Peru.
3. Huarpa Successors: The population of the Ayacucho region who consolidated power to form the core of the Wari state.
4. Pachacamac Religious Center: Becomes an important religious center on the Central Coast, likely maintaining autonomy but respected by the Wari.
5. Cajamarca Culture (Wari Influence): The regional culture of the Northern Highlands, which maintained its identity while interacting with Wari influence and trade.
6. Pachacamac Worshippers: Pilgrims from across the Central Andes who traveled to the growing ceremonial complex.
7. Pikillacta Administrators: Officials responsible for running the massive Wari administrative center near Cusco.
8. Wari Regional Governors: Elite administrators dispatched from the capital to oversee provinces.
9. Wari Colonists: People resettled by the Wari state to new administrative centers and agricultural lands.
10. Conchopata Artisans: Specialized potters near the Wari capital, known for large ceremonial urns featuring Wari iconography.
11. Moche Remnants: Surviving communities of the Moche culture in the Northern Valleys, after the Moche state’s decline, continuing local traditions.
12. Lambayeque Ancestors (Early Phase): Groups in the Lambayeque region (North Coast) transitioning out of the Moche sphere and setting the stage for the Sican/Lambayeque culture.
13. Wari State Religion Adherents: Peoples across the empire who adopted the standardized Wari iconography and cults, often featuring the Staff God.
14. Moche IV/V Phase: The final, collapse-era phase of the Moche state, often marked by internal conflict and environmental disaster.
15. Huarco Peoples: Regional groups on the Central Coast influenced by Wari expansion.
16. Wari Road Maintenance Crews: The people responsible for maintaining the state’s nascent road network.
17. Sican Ancestors (Middle Phase): Regional groups in the Lambayeque Valley that would eventually become the Sican/Lambayeque state.
18. Moyobamba Cultures: Groups in the ceja de selva (eyebrow of the jungle) transitioning zone, interacting with the eastern Wari frontier.
19. Jauja Valley Peoples: Highland groups in the central Andes under Wari control.
20. Wari Textile Producers: Highly skilled artisans crafting the standardized, tapestry-woven textiles for the state.

B. Southern Andean (Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) Cultures and Traditions

21. Tiwanaku Polity: The dominant empire/state centered in the Bolivian Altiplano; known for monumental stonework, agricultural engineering, and long-distance trade.
22. Tiwanaku Administrators: The ruling elite who managed the vast Altiplano state from the capital.
23. Tiwanaku Stone Sculptors: Artisans responsible for creating the megalithic architecture and statuary, such as the Gate of the Sun.
24. Wankarani Remnants: Small, surviving communities of this earlier altiplano culture, absorbed or eclipsed by Tiwanaku.
25. Aguada Culture: Prominent culture in the Argentine Andes; showed distinct influences from Tiwanaku iconography and metallurgy, often considered a Tiwanaku periphery.
26. San Pedro III-IV Phases: Later phases in the Atacama oasis, characterized by the use of Tiwanaku-style hallucinogenic paraphernalia.
27. San Pedro Elite: Regional leaders in the Atacama, integrated into the Tiwanaku trade network.
28. Tiwanaku Colonists: People established in valleys like Cochabamba (Bolivia) and Moquegua (Peru) to manage resources.
29. Chiribaya Ancestors (Tiwanaku Influence): Early settled groups on the Southern Peruvian/Northern Chilean coast who were heavily influenced by Tiwanaku.
30. Tiwanaku Hydraulic Engineers: The people responsible for building the suka kollus (raised field agriculture) around Lake Titicaca.
31. Molles Culture (Late Phase): Final stages of this Chilean culture, interacting with Tiwanaku’s southern expansion.
32. Tiwanaku Traders: Merchants facilitating the exchange of goods (llama wool, maize, coca, metals) between the Altiplano and its colonies.
33. Diaguita Ancestors (Tiwanaku Influence): Formative groups in the Argentine Northwest showing early signs of Tiwanaku cultural impact.
34. Cochabamba Valley Settlers: Farmers in the fertile valleys of Bolivia, incorporated into the Tiwanaku production system.
35. Tiwanaku Soldiers: State military forces responsible for maintaining order and protecting trade routes.

C. Northern Andean (Ecuador, Colombia) Cultures and Traditions

36. Tairona Confederation (Middle Phase): The height of urban planning and goldworking for this group in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia).
37. Tierradentro Culture (Classic Phase): The period of construction for the sophisticated, painted underground burial chambers (hypogea) in the Colombian highlands.
38. Muisca Ancestors (Herrera Period Late): Continued development of the agricultural and ceramic tradition in the Bogotá savanna, preceding the formation of the Confederation.
39. Tolima Culture (Late Phase): Continued production of sophisticated gold ornaments in the Magdalena Valley (Colombia).
40. Yotoco Culture (Late Phase): Final stages of the Calima cultural sequence in the Cauca Valley (Colombia).
41. Pasto People (Middle Phase): Established communities in the Nariño region (Southern Colombia/Northern Ecuador).

36. Capulí Culture (Middle Phase): Active phase of this culture on the border of Ecuador and Colombia.
37. Jama-Coaque Culture (Late Phase): Coastal Ecuadorian culture still active, though declining, following the Early Intermediate period.
38. La Tolita/Tumaco Remnants: Surviving communities of this coastal culture following its peak.
39. Carchi People: Highland groups in the Carchi region (Ecuador/Colombia).

D. Further Regional and Peripheral Cultures

46. Viracochapampa Administrators: Wari officials running the large administrative center in the Northern Peruvian highlands.
47. Marcahuamachuco Inhabitants: The populous highland site that interacted with or was subsumed by the Wari sphere.
48. Cajamarca Ceramic Artists: Regional artists who maintained their distinct white kaolin pottery style.
49. Pampa Grande Inhabitants: Wari-established people who occupied the former Moche capital.
50. Cerro Baúl Inhabitants: People of the Wari-Tiwanaku border region, crucial for resource exchange.
51. Wari Artisans: Specialized craftspeople creating prestige goods in the Wari capital.
52. Pampa Grande Administrators: Wari officials overseeing the large center in the Lambayeque Valley.
53. Atacameño Farmers: Settled agricultural communities in the Atacama region.
54. Chiribaya Fishermen: Coastal communities providing marine resources to the altiplano networks.
55. Titicaca Basin Farmers: The common agricultural populace of the Tiwanaku heartland.
56. Wari Quipumakers: Early record keepers potentially using the quipu (knotted strings) for state administration.
57. Tiwanaku Quipumakers (Possible): Hypothetical record keepers using early forms of the quipu.
58. Ayacucho Valley Farmers: The agricultural base of the Wari capital.
59. Chancay Ancestors (Wari Influence): Coastal groups showing ceramic influence from the Wari.
60. Chincha Ancestors (Early Wari): Early groups in the Chincha Valley interacting with the expanding Wari network.
61. Chavin de Huantar Remnants: Communities maintaining occupation at or near the former ceremonial center.
62. Pacopampa Remnants: Surviving communities near the former ceremonial center.
63. Huari Citadel Inhabitants: The core residential population of the Wari capital city.
64. Sondor People: Regional groups in the Andahuaylas area.
65. Huamachuco Valley Peoples: Highland groups in the Northern Andes.
66. San Jerónimo People: Regional group in the Cusco area.
67. San Rafael People: Regional group in the Cusco area.
68. Wari Metalworkers: Artisans creating prestige copper and bronze items.
69. Tiwanaku Metalworkers: Artisans creating elaborate gold and copper objects.
70. Cochabamba Settlers: Tiwanaku-linked agricultural communities.
71. Paracas Remnants: Small groups maintaining some traditions in the Southern Coast valleys.
72. Nazca Remnants: Communities maintaining Nazca ceramic traditions following the collapse of the Nazca state.
73. Moquegua Valley Settlers (Wari): Wari colonists establishing administrative outposts in the south.
74. Moquegua Valley Settlers (Tiwanaku): Tiwanaku colonists establishing outposts in the same valley, leading to interaction/conflict.
75. Omasuyo People: Regional group in the Lake Titicaca region.
76. Pukina Speakers: The local language group of the Tiwanaku heartland.
77. Aymara Speakers (Early): Emerging language group in the Titicaca Basin.
78. Quechua Speakers (Early): Emerging language group in the Central Peruvian Highlands.
79. Chimay People: Regional group in the Northern Highlands.
80. Huánuco Pampa Ancestors: Early occupation of the future Inca administrative center, possibly a Wari outpost.
81. Chicha Valley People: Regional group in the South.
82. Andahuaylas People: Regional group in the Central Highlands.
83. Wari Sorcerers/Priests: The religious elite responsible for state rituals.
84. Tiwanaku Priests: The religious elite administering the cults centered on the Staff God.
85. Diaguita Settlers: Farming communities in the Argentine Andes.
86. Huari Textile Exporters: Those involved in the long-distance trade of Wari prestige textiles.
87. Inka Ancestors (Middle Horizon): Small, local group in the Cusco Valley, not yet dominant.
88. Killke Ancestors (Middle Horizon): Small, local group in the Cusco Valley, ancestral to the later Killke culture.
89. Cajamarca Pottery Exporters: Traders exporting the distinctive Cajamarca pottery across the highlands.
90. Sillustani Builders (Early): Initial development of stone towers (chullpas) in the Lake Titicaca region.
91. Tiwanaku Artisans: Specialized craftspeople creating ceramic vessels with standardized Tiwanaku motifs.
92. Wari Terracotta Artists: Sculptors creating large terracotta figures.
93. Cusco Valley Early Farmers: The local agricultural base of the Cusco region.
94. San Pedro Atacama Caravaners: People responsible for the llama caravan trade linking the Chilean coast and the altiplano.
95. Mollo Ancestors (Middle Phase): Groups in the Northern Bolivian Andes interacting with Tiwanaku influence.
96. Wari Administrative Network: The entire network of officials, messengers, and centers (e.g., Pikillacta, Huari).
97. Tiwanaku Raised Field Farmers: The communities reliant on the highly productive suka kollus system.
98. Tumbez People Ancestors: Early settlers in the Northernmost Peruvian coast.
99. Chachapoyas Ancestors (Early): Early settled groups in the cloud forests before the major cultural expansion.
100. Chimila Ancestors (Middle Phase): Continued development of settled life in the Colombian coastal region.

A. Central Andean (Peru) Cultures and Traditions

1. Ayarmaca Kingdom: A powerful regional lordship/kingdom in the Cusco area, a major rival and opponent of the early Inca.
2. Cajamarca Culture (Late Phase): Continued to flourish in the Northern Highlands, maintaining trade and its distinct ceramic style, until conquered by Chimú/Inca.
3. Chachapoyas: The “Warriors of the Clouds,” a fierce, highland culture in northern Peru, known for cliff tombs (purunmachu) and defensive architecture.
4. Chancas: A formidable military confederation in the Andean highlands (Apurímac region), known for their aggressive expansion against the emerging Inca.
5. Chancay Culture: A coastal culture north of Lima, known for prolific black-on-white ceramics, wooden carvings, and plain cotton gauze textiles.
6. Chimú Kingdom: The most powerful coastal state of the period, centered at Chan Chan, known for massive adobe architecture and sophisticated hydraulic engineering.
7. Chincha Kingdom: A powerful coastal kingdom south of Lima, renowned for controlling a vast maritime trade network via large balsa rafts.
8. Chiribaya Culture: Coastal culture on the far south coast of Peru and Northern Chile, noted for well-preserved mummy bundles and dog burials.
9. Ichma Kingdom: A coastal polity in the Lima region (Lurín and Rímac Valleys), builders of the second phase of the Pachacamac temple complex.
10. Killke Culture: The immediate pre-Inca culture in the Cusco area, responsible for early stonework foundations that the Inca later expanded upon.
11. Sican Culture (Lambayeque): Successor to the Moche tradition on the North Coast, known for spectacular goldwork (Tumi knives, masks) and the capital at Batán Grande.
12. Huamanga Culture: Regional expression of post-Wari traditions in the Ayacucho region.
13. Ychsma People: The population of the Ichma Kingdom.
14. Collique People: Local group/kingdom on the Central Coast, absorbed by the Chimú.
15. Huari People (Ayacucho): Local groups in the former Wari heartland, often militarized.
16. Tajaraca Kingdom: A local group/kingdom on the North Coast.
17. Piura Cultures: Regional groups in the far north of the Peruvian coast.
18. Huaylas People: Local group/kingdom in the Callejón de Huaylas.
19. Huamachuco People: Highland group in the Northern Andes, conquered by Chimú and later Inca.
20. Huánuco People: Local groups in the Central Highlands, builders of pukaras (fortresses).
21. Chimu Metalworkers: Highly specialized artisans who perfected copper, silver, and gold working techniques.
22. Chancay Textile Workers: Artisans renowned for their plain, elegant cotton textiles and tapestry panels.
23. Chincha Merchants: The professional, long-distance maritime traders.
24. Cajamarquilla Inhabitants: The people who occupied this large adobe city during the Late Intermediate Period (likely Ichma/Wari remnants).
25. Chimu Royal Nobility: The elite rulers of the Chimú Kingdom, often buried with immense wealth.

B. Altiplano and Southern Andean (Bolivia, Chile, Argentina) Cultures and Traditions

26. Aymara Lordships: Various powerful post-Tiwanaku kingdoms surrounding Lake Titicaca, engaged in constant warfare, notably the Colla and Lupaca.
27. Colla Kingdom: The largest Aymara Lordship, located on the northern shore of Lake Titicaca, bitter rivals of the Lupaca.
28. Lupaca Kingdom: A major Aymara Lordship on the southwestern shore of Lake Titicaca, known for wealth in alpaca and llama herds.
29. Pacasa Kingdom: An Aymara Lordship located south of the Lake Titicaca Basin.
30. Diaguita Confederation: A group of agricultural polities in the Argentine/Chilean Andes, known for fortified towns (pukaras) and resistance.
31. Molles Culture Remnants: Surviving communities in the Chilean Norte Chico.
32. Atacameño Culture: Settled peoples of the Atacama Desert, maintaining trade links and known for wooden snuff tablets.
33. Sillustani Builders: The people (likely Colla/Lupaca) who built the iconic stone burial towers (chullpas) near Lake Titicaca.
34. Incallajta Builders (Early): Early construction phases of the massive fortified structure in Bolivia.
35. Pukina Speakers: The original language group of the Tiwanaku heartland, still present as a minority.
36. Chichas People: Regional group in the extreme south of Bolivia/North Argentina.
37. Yura People: Indigenous group in the highlands of Potosí (Bolivia).
38. San Pedro Atacama (Late Phase): Final phase before Inca contact, still heavily involved in trade.
39. Aguada Culture Remnants: Surviving post-Tiwanaku groups in the Argentine Northwest.
40. Calchaquí Warriors: The militant people of the Argentine Diaguita confederation.
41. Pucarás Builders: The peoples throughout the highlands who constructed the characteristic hilltop fortresses.
42. Aymara Caravaners: The llama herders and traders essential for altiplano commerce.
43. Chiribaya Fishers: Coastal groups supplying fish and guano to the Southern Andes.

C. Northern Andean (Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela) Cultures and Traditions

44. Cañari Culture: Pre-Inca civilization in the Southern Ecuadorian Highlands, renowned warriors and skilled stoneworkers.
45. Kingdom of Quito: A political entity in the Northern Ecuadorian Highlands (Quito Basin).
46. Quitu Culture: Regional culture in the Quito Basin, often considered part of the Kingdom of Quito.
47. Manteño Culture: A major coastal culture in Ecuador, known for its extensive maritime trade, stone seats (sillas), and the capital at Jocay.
48. Los Huancavilca: Coastal culture in Ecuador, closely related to the Manteño, known for distinct dental modification.
49. Tairona Confederation (Classic Phase): The height of this culture in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia), known for large stone-paved cities (e.g., Ciudad Perdida) and masterful gold work.
50. Muisca Confederation: Complex society in the Eastern Andes of Colombia (Bogotá savanna), organized into decentralized chiefdoms, famous for the El Dorado legend.
51. Panche People: Warlike indigenous group in the Magdalena Valley (Colombia), rivals of the Muisca.
52. Sutagao People: Indigenous group near the Muisca territory (Colombia).
53. Timoto-Cuica: Indigenous people of the Venezuelan Andes, known for irrigation and tiered farming.
54. Tierra Adentro People: The people of the Tierradentro region (Colombia), continuing the hypogea tradition.
55. Pasto People (Late Phase): Highly organized group in the Nariño region (Colombia), known for their unique pottery.
56. Carchi People: Highland groups in the Ecuador/Colombia border region.
57. Cañari Stoneworkers: Artisans responsible for the fine stone architecture in Southern Ecuador.
58. Manteño Traders: Maritime merchants who plied the Pacific coast.
59. Tairona Gold Workers: Highly skilled artisans in gold and tumbaga casting.
60. Zápara People: Indigenous group in the Amazonian foothills of Ecuador.

D. Further Regional and Social Manifestations

61. Chan Chan Inhabitants: The vast population of the Chimú capital city (up to 40,000 residents).
62. Sillustani Chullpas: The monumental burial towers themselves (architecture representing the people).
63. Pacaca People: Local group/kingdom on the Central Coast.
64. Ilo Culture: Regional coastal culture in Southern Peru.
65. Viracochapampa Remnants: The communities that continued to inhabit the former Wari administrative center.
66. Virú Valley Remnants: Post-Moche communities in the Virú Valley.
67. Tallán People: Local group/kingdom in Northern Peru.
68. Tumbez People: Local group/kingdom in Northernmost Peru, first encountered by the Spanish.
69. Guancavilca Fishermen: Specialized fishing communities of coastal Ecuador.
70. Quitu Farmers: The agricultural base of the Quito Basin.
71. Puruha People: Indigenous group in the Ecuadorian Highlands, rivals of the Cañari.
72. Lache People: Indigenous group in the Colombian Andes.
73. Muzos People: Indigenous group in the emerald mining region of Colombia.
74. Coconuco People: Indigenous group in the Southern Colombian highlands.
75. Guambiano People: Indigenous group in the Southern Colombian highlands.
76. Pijao People: Indigenous group in the Colombian highlands.
77. Yaruro People: Indigenous group in the Venezuelan Andean periphery.
78. Tehuelches (Early Phase): Hunter-gatherers in Patagonia, representing the extreme southern periphery.
79. Chimila People: Indigenous people of the Colombian coastal plains.
80. Muisca Farmers: The agricultural base of the Bogotá savanna.
81. Chibcha Speakers: The broad linguistic family including Muisca and Tairona.
82. Quechua Speakers (Early Cusco): The local people of Cusco who spoke an early form of Quechua.
83. Molla People: Group in the Northern Bolivian Andes.
84. Chiribaya Potters: Artisans noted for their distinctive ceramic styles.
85. Chincha Fishermen: The maritime population supporting the Chincha trade network.
86. Chimú Administrators: Bureaucrats governing the vast Chimú state from Chan Chan.
87. Sicán Gold Artifacts: The actual artistic products representing the cultural focus of the Sicán elite.
88. Chachapoyas Warriors: The specialized, military component of the Chachapoyas groups.
89. Cajamarca Weavers: Artisans known for their unique textile patterns.
90. Huari Ruins Residents: Small, post-imperial communities living amongst the ruins of the former capital.
91. Tiwanaku Ruins Residents: Small, post-imperial communities living amongst the ruins of the former capital.
92. Chiquitos People: Indigenous group in the Bolivian lowlands (Periphery).
93. Mojos People: Indigenous group in the Bolivian lowlands (Periphery).
94. Ayaviri People: Local group near Lake Titicaca (Colla territory).
95. Chuquiabo People: Local group in the La Paz Valley (Bolivia).
96. Inca Ancestors (Late Intermediate): The small, early kingdom in the Cusco Valley, beginning its expansion phase.
97. Titicaca Basin Shepherds: The common population managing the camelid herds.
98. Huaman Huilca Lordship: A local kingdom/lordship in the Central Highlands.
99. Pacacocha Lordship: A local group/kingdom.
100. Qotu Qotu Lordship: A local group/kingdom.

A. Late Horizon: The Inca Imperial Period (c. 1400 CE – 1532 CE)

1. Inca Empire (Tawantinsuyu): The largest empire in pre-Columbian America, ruling over an estimated 10 million subjects.
2. Inca Royal Ayllus: The royal clans descending from the Sapa Inca, maintaining immense prestige.
3. Sapa Inca: The divine, single ruler of the empire.
4. Cusco Imperial Nobility: The elite class of “Incas by Privilege” residing in or near the capital.
5. Inca Governors (Tucricuq): Administrators who managed the four suyus (quarters) of the empire.
6. Inca Architects: The master stoneworkers responsible for sites like Machu Picchu and Sacsayhuamán.
7. Inca Road Engineers: Those who designed and maintained the extensive Qhapaq Ñan (Inca Road System).
8. Inca Tax Collectors (Quipucamayoc): Officials specializing in the use of the quipu (knotted strings) for census and accounting.
9. Inca Mitimae: Colonists forcibly resettled by the Inca to control newly conquered territories and manage resources.
10. Inca Soldiers: The highly organized military component that conquered and secured the empire.
11. Aclla (Chosen Women): Women dedicated to religious service, weaving, and brewing chicha for the state.
12. Yanakuna (Retainers): Permanent servants or specialized workers detached from their original ayllus.
13. Chachapoyas Warriors (under Inca): Conquered people utilized as military troops by the Inca.
14. Cañari Generals (under Inca): Elite soldiers and commanders from the conquered Cañari territory.
15. Chan Chan Administrators (under Inca): Local Chimú nobles who continued to govern the North Coast under Inca supervision.
16. Colla Chiefs (Mallkus): Local Aymara leaders who retained authority over their ayllus but answered to the Inca.
17. Chincha Merchants (under Inca): Maritime traders whose network was incorporated into the imperial economy.
18. Tairona Warriors (unconquered): Groups maintaining independence against the Inca’s northern frontier.
19. Inca Astronomers: Priests and scholars tracking the heavens for religious and agricultural calendars.
20. Inca Priests: Religious officials administering the cult of Inti (the Sun God).
21. Inca Royal Mummies (Mallqui): The preserved bodies of deceased Sapa Incas, treated as living entities with continued ownership of their estates.
22. Inca Metalworkers: Artisans producing objects for the state, often specializing in gold, silver, and tumbaga alloys.
23. Inca Potters: Artisans creating the highly standardized, geometric aryballo pottery style.
24. Inca Weavers: Producers of the cumbi (fine tapestry) and awasqa (common cloth) textiles.
25. Killke Remnants (absorbed): The local population of Cusco absorbed into the expanding Inca state.
26. Diaguita Warriors (under Inca): Groups in Argentina conquered and garrisoned by the Inca.
27. Timoto-Cuica Farmers (unconquered): Groups maintaining their agricultural practices on the northern periphery.
28. Inca Coya: The principal wife and sister of the Sapa Inca.
29. Muisca Chiefs (Zipas and Zaque): The political leaders of the Muisca Confederation, unconquered by the Inca.
30. Tehuelche Hunters (periphery): The nomadic people of Patagonia, outside the empire’s control.

B. Post-Conquest and Contemporary Peoples (c. 1532 CE – Present)

This phase includes the cultural continuity, resistance, and contemporary identity of Indigenous groups.

31. Quechua People: The largest Indigenous ethnic group in the Andes, speaking various dialects of the Quechua language (the Inca lingua franca).
32. Aymara Tribe: Major Indigenous group of the Altiplano (Bolivia/Peru), maintaining strong community structures and language.
33. Kogui (Cógui): Indigenous people of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia), direct descendants of the Tairona, who maintain pre-Columbian traditions.
34. Arhuaco: Indigenous people of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, known for their religious and social conservatism.
35. Wayuu People: Indigenous people of the La Guajira Peninsula (Venezuela/Colombia), a significant Indigenous group near the Andean periphery.
36. Shuar (Jivaroan): Indigenous people of the Amazonian foothills of Ecuador/Peru, known for their autonomy and resistance.
37. Asháninka People: Large Indigenous group of the Peruvian Amazon, traditionally connected to the eastern slopes of the Andes.
38. Cofán People: Indigenous people of the Andean foothills (Ecuador/Colombia), known for their shamanic traditions.
39. Awajún (Aguaruna): Indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazonian slopes.
40. Saraguro People: Indigenous group in the Southern Ecuadorian Highlands, known for their distinct dress and traditions (possibly Inca mitimae descendants).
41. Otavalo People: Indigenous group in the Northern Ecuadorian Highlands, famous for their weaving and successful entrepreneurial networks.
42. Paez (Nasa) People: Indigenous group in the Southern Colombian Highlands, known for their historical resistance.
43. Guambiano (Misak): Indigenous people in the Colombian Andes.
44. Diaguita People (Modern): Contemporary descendants in the Argentine/Chilean Andes, revitalizing their identity.
45. Mapuche People: The largest Indigenous group in Chile/Argentina, successfully resisted both Inca and Spanish conquest (Southern periphery).

31. Kallawaya: Indigenous ritual healers and herbalists of Bolivia, known for maintaining esoteric knowledge.
32. Quechua Farmers: The largest contemporary social group, maintaining traditional agricultural techniques (andenes, terraces).
33. Aymara Shepherds: People maintaining the traditional camelid herding economy on the Altiplano.
34. Uros People: Indigenous group living on floating reed islands on Lake Titicaca (Peru/Bolivia).
35. Yanesha (Amuesha): Indigenous people in the Peruvian Amazonian slopes.
36. Caxas People: Local group in the Northern Peruvian highlands.
37. Huancas People: Indigenous group of the Central Peruvian highlands, allies of the Spanish against the Inca.
38. Cañari People (Modern): Contemporary descendants in the Ecuadorian Highlands.
39. Tariano People: Indigenous group in the Amazonian periphery.
40. Yagua People: Indigenous group in the Peruvian Amazon.
41. Muisca Descendants: People in the Bogotá savanna region who trace ancestry to the Muisca Confederation.
42. Panche Descendants: People in the Colombian highlands.
43. Sutagao Descendants: People in the Colombian highlands.
44. Tairona Descendants: Broad term for the Indigenous people of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta.
45. Chimila People (Modern): Contemporary group in the Colombian coastal lowlands.

C. Further Historical, Social, and Peripheral Entities

61. Inca Loyalists: Groups who continued armed resistance against the Spanish (e.g., in Vilcabamba) after 1532.
62. Spanish Conquistadors: The European military force that defeated the Inca (Pizarro, Almagro, etc.).
63. Neo-Inca State: The small, independent Inca kingdom that survived in Vilcabamba until 1572 (Túpac Amaru I).
64. Colonial Viceroyalty Administrators: The Spanish officials who governed the former Inca territories.
65. Andean Mestizos: People of mixed Indigenous and European ancestry who emerged during the colonial period.
66. Creole Elites: People of Spanish descent born in the Americas, forming the top social class.
67. Reducciones Inhabitants: Indigenous people forcibly resettled into Spanish-style villages (reducciones).
68. Yanaconas (Colonial): Indigenous laborers tied to Spanish estates.
69. Mita Laborers: Indigenous people forced into rotational labor for the Spanish crown (mines, public works).
70. Túpac Amaru II Rebels: Indigenous and Mestizo participants in the major 1780 rebellion against Spanish rule.
71. Q’ero People: Small Quechua-speaking community in the Peruvian Andes, often cited for maintaining ancient traditions.
72. Lamas People: Indigenous community in the San Martín region (Peru).
73. Inca Survivors of Cusco: Those who remained in the capital after the Spanish takeover.
74. Inca Royal Women (Post-Conquest): Elite women who formed marriage alliances with Spanish officials.
75. Huancas Collaborators: The people of the Huanca ethnic group who provided vital aid to the Spanish.
76. Chachapoyas Collaborators: Groups who aided the Spanish against the Inca.
77. Kuna People (Periphery): Indigenous people primarily in Panama/Colombia border region.
78. Japreria People (Periphery): Indigenous people in the Venezuelan periphery.
79. Curripaco People (Periphery): Indigenous people in the Amazonian periphery.
80. Piapoco People (Periphery): Indigenous people in the Amazonian periphery.
81. Bora People (Periphery): Indigenous people in the Amazonian region.
82. Resigaro People (Periphery): Indigenous group in the Peruvian/Colombian Amazon.
83. Ocaina People (Periphery): Indigenous group in the Peruvian Amazon.
84. Yaminahua People (Periphery): Indigenous group in the Amazonian region.
85. Sikuani People (Periphery): Indigenous group in the Colombian/Venezuelan plains near the Andes.
86. Pastos People (Modern): Contemporary people of the Nariño region, Colombia.
87. Inca Huancas: The imperial administrative centers.
88. Vilcabamba Rebels: The specific people who retreated to the jungle stronghold with the Neo-Inca state.
89. Cajamarca People (Post-Conquest): Continued to survive as Indigenous communities in the northern highlands.
90. Chimú Descendants: Coastal people who maintained cultural identity after the fall of the empire.
91. Inca Royal Genealogists: Individuals who preserved the oral histories of the Inca royal lines during the colonial period.
92. Jesuit Mission Converts: Indigenous people who were brought into Jesuit missions in the periphery (e.g., Moxos).
93. Manteño Descendants: Contemporary coastal communities in Ecuador.
94. Zápara People (Modern): Contemporary indigenous group in the Ecuadorian Amazonian slopes.
95. Inca Qollqa (Storehouses) Managers: Officials responsible for maintaining the imperial food and supply systems.
96. Andean Priests (Paqos): Contemporary ritual specialists who maintain traditional spiritual practices.
97. Quechua Historians: Modern Indigenous scholars and community members preserving the history of their people.
98. Aymara Activists: Leaders and people involved in contemporary political movements advocating for Indigenous rights in Bolivia and Peru.
99. Guane Descendants: Contemporary people in the Santander region of Colombia.
100. Inca Capac Ñan Travelers (Post-Conquest): Local people who continued to use the imperial road network for local trade and travel after the empire’s collapse.